Technical Writing

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Texting is a valuable tool for brief business exchanges, but its effectiveness depends on careful audience awareness, message appropriateness, and recognition of its limitations.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What texting is good for: short exchanges and convenient connection when phone calls would be cumbersome.
• What texting is NOT good for: long or complicated messages.
• Key principle: always consider your audience and company when choosing words, terms, or abbreviations.
• Common confusion: symbols and codes can lead to unintentional misinterpretation due to texting's limited nature.
• Professional boundaries: frequency and context matter—overuse can border on harassment, and texting while driving reflects poorly on judgment and employer.

📱 When to use texting

📱 Appropriate contexts

• Texting is useful for short exchanges.
• It provides a convenient way to stay connected when talking on the phone would be cumbersome.
• Example: Quick questions or brief updates that don't require detailed explanation.

⚠️ When NOT to use texting

• Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages.
• The excerpt emphasizes that careful consideration should be given to the audience before choosing to text.
• Don't confuse: just because texting is convenient doesn't mean it's appropriate for every business situation.

👥 Audience awareness

👥 Know your recipient

The principle: always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.

• The same message can be appropriate or inappropriate depending on who receives it.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • To a close associate: "? % dsct" might be understandable (asking about a discount).
  • To your boss: "what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?" is wiser—clearer and more professional.
• Why it matters: abbreviations and shorthand that work with peers may confuse or appear unprofessional to superiors or external contacts.

🔤 Choosing appropriate language

• Words, terms, and abbreviations must match the recipient's expectations and the company's standards.
• The level of formality and clarity should scale with the professional distance between you and the recipient.

⚠️ Limitations and risks

⚠️ Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation

• Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions.
• The excerpt warns: "Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages."
• Why this matters: what seems clear to you may be ambiguous or confusing to the recipient.
• Example: A symbol or abbreviation might carry different meanings in different contexts or to different people.

🚫 Frequency and harassment

• Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment.
• Texting is described as "a tool"—use it when appropriate but don't abuse it.
• Professional boundary: respect the recipient's time and attention; excessive texting damages professional relationships.

🚗 Texting and driving

• The excerpt explicitly warns: Don't text and drive.
• Research cited shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if the driver is texting behind the wheel.
• Professional consequence: being in an accident while conducting company business would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.
• This is both a safety issue and a professional reputation issue.

📋 Summary of principles

Principle	What it means	Why it matters
Know your recipient	Match language/abbreviations to audience	Ensures clarity and professionalism
Anticipate misinterpretation	Recognize symbols/codes have limited clarity	Prevents confusion and miscommunication
Respect frequency boundaries	Don't contact too often	Avoids harassment and maintains professional relationships
Never text and drive	Safety and judgment issue	Protects you and reflects on your employer

📝 Note on scope

The excerpt states that texting will not be used in the class as a form of professional communication, but students should be aware of these principles to guide their writing in texting contexts outside the classroom.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

E-mail in business requires professional attention to detail, tone, and structure because it reflects both the writer and the organization and may be forwarded to any third party.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Role of e-mail: has largely replaced print letters for external correspondence and memos for internal communication in business.
• Professional vs. personal tone: business e-mail requires professionalism and respect, unlike informal personal e-mail, because it represents the company.
• Key formatting principles: proper salutation, clear subject line, signature block, brief paragraphs, and prompt replies within twenty-four hours.
• Common confusion: e-mail is not text messaging—avoid abbreviations, all caps, and informal shortcuts that work in personal contexts but not in business.
• Why it matters: poorly written e-mails take more time to undo than getting it right the first time; e-mails can be read publicly or forwarded.

📧 What e-mail does in business

📧 External and internal use

• External correspondence: e-mail has largely replaced traditional print hard copy letters for communication outside the company.
• Internal communication: in many cases, e-mail has taken the place of memos for communication within the company.
• E-mail is best used for messages with slightly more content than a text message, but still fairly brief.

🤖 Automated and templated e-mails

• Many businesses use automated e-mails to:
  • Acknowledge communications from the public
  • Remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due
• Workers may be assigned to "populate" a form e-mail: standard paragraphs are used, but the writer chooses from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.

🔄 Information exchange function

• E-mail often serves to exchange information within organizations.
• Although e-mail may have an informal feel, when used for business it needs to convey professionalism and respect.
• Golden rule: Never write or send anything that you wouldn't want read in public or in front of your company president.

✍️ Core formatting and structure principles

👋 Proper salutation

A proper salutation demonstrates respect and avoids mix-ups in case a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient.

• External: use formal salutations like "Dear Ms. X"
• Internal: use friendly but professional greetings like "Hi Barry"
• Gender-neutral approach: never use the title Mrs. as you cannot assume a woman is married; if gender is not evident, use the entire name (e.g., "Dear Sam Jones")

📋 Subject line and signature

• Subject line: must be clear, brief, and specific to help the recipient understand the essence of the message.
  • Example: "Proposal attached" or "Your question of 10/25"
• Signature block: identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains your name and business contact information.

📝 Message body structure

• Be brief: omit unnecessary words.
• Use good format: divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading.
• Three-paragraph rule: a good e-mail should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.

⚠️ Common mistakes to avoid

🚫 Informal language traps

What to avoid	Why	Business alternative
Abbreviations	An e-mail is not a text message	Write out full words
All caps	Considered rude; communicates emphatic emotion or yelling on the Internet	Use normal capitalization
Informal wit	Audience may not appreciate it	Maintain professional tone

Don't confuse: E-mail may feel informal, but business e-mail requires attention to detail and awareness that it reflects you and your company.

📧 Technical and response practices

• Reread, revise, and review: catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press "send"—it will take more time and effort to undo problems caused by a hasty, poorly written e-mail than to get it right the first time.
• Reply promptly: reply to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say you will provide requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
  • Watch out for emotional responses—never reply in anger.
• Use "Reply All" sparingly: do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.

🔗 Attachments and links

• Test links: if you include a link, test it to make sure it is working.
• E-mail ahead of time: warn recipients if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite large) to prevent exceeding the recipient's mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.
• Give feedback or follow up: if you don't get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call—spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.

🎓 Application to educational contexts

🎓 Same principles apply

The excerpt notes that the principles explained for business e-mail apply to the educational context as well.

• Use these principles when communicating with instructors and classroom peers.
• Professional communication requires attention to the specific writing context.
• Even elements of form can indicate a writer's strong understanding of audience and purpose.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Netiquette—etiquette for online communication—matters because what you post online creates a lasting, permanent record that can affect your professional reputation and relationships.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What netiquette is: protocols and norms for communication on the Internet, covering how we conduct ourselves in posts, messages, and online interactions.
• Why it matters: online content (photos, remarks, posts) can be seen by employers and others, leaving a lasting image that may come back later.
• Core principle—text is permanent: what you say online is difficult to retract, so be judicious and consider your responsibility to the group.
• Common confusion: tone and intent—jokes and sarcasm often don't translate well online; always check your tone before publishing and seek clarification before judging.
• Key practices: introduce yourself, remember there's a person behind the words, avoid flaming (hostile reactions), respect privacy, and familiarize yourself with organizational IT policies.

🌐 Understanding netiquette

🌐 What netiquette means

Netiquette: etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet.

• It governs how we create personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies in our careers.
• The excerpt emphasizes that online conduct "can leave a lasting image, literally."
• Example: A photograph posted on a social media feed may be seen by a potential employer; a nasty remark in a post may haunt you later.

⚠️ Why permanence matters

• Online postings are permanent and difficult to retract.
• Following netiquette guidelines helps you avoid embarrassment later.
• The excerpt stresses being judicious: consider your responsibility to the group and working environment before posting.

🧑‍💻 Know your context

🧑‍💻 Introduce yourself and avoid assumptions

• Introduce yourself when posting or communicating online.
• Avoid assumptions about your readers: culture influences communication style and practices.
• Don't assume everyone shares your background or communication norms.

📋 Familiarize yourself with policies

• Organizations have policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources.
• The excerpt recommends reviewing your organization's acceptable use policy to understand what is permitted.

🤝 Remember the human

🤝 There's a person behind the words

• Ask for clarification before making judgement: don't jump to conclusions based on text alone.
• Check your tone before you publish: tone can be misread online.
• Respond to people using their names: personalizes communication and shows respect.

🌍 Culture, gender, and participation styles

• Culture and even gender can play a part in how people communicate.
• Remain authentic and expect the same of others.
• Remember that people may not reply immediately; some participate just by reading rather than jumping into the conversation.

🚫 Avoid jokes and sarcasm

• Jokes and sarcasm often don't translate well to the online environment.
• What seems funny or light-hearted in person can be misunderstood or offensive in text.
• Example: A sarcastic comment intended as humor may be read as hostile or dismissive by the recipient.

🔥 Avoid flaming: research before you react

🔥 What flaming means and how to avoid it

• Flaming: hostile, disrespectful online behavior that can escalate quickly.
• The excerpt advises:
  • Accept and forgive mistakes: people make errors; don't overreact.
  • Seek clarification before reacting: don't assume the worst interpretation.
  • Consider your responsibility to the group and working environment.

🆘 When to escalate

• Sometimes online behavior appears so disrespectful and hostile that it requires attention.
• Ask your supervisor for guidance if you encounter serious issues.
• Let your supervisor know right away so the right resources can be called upon to help.
• Don't confuse: minor misunderstandings vs. serious hostility—escalate only when behavior is genuinely harmful.

🔒 Respect privacy and original ideas

🔒 Quote and attribute

• Quote the original author if you are responding to a specific point made by someone else.
• This shows respect for their ideas and avoids misrepresenting their position.

📧 Ask permission before forwarding

• Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication.
• Emails may contain private or sensitive information not intended for wider distribution.
• Example: A colleague sends you a message about a personal concern; forwarding it without permission violates their privacy.

🤝 Ground rules for collaborative text communication

🤝 Agree on norms

• If you are working collaboratively, agree on ground rules for text communication.
• Examples of ground rules:
  • Formal or informal tone?
  • Seek clarification whenever needed.
  • Response time expectations.
• Establishing these norms upfront prevents misunderstandings and ensures smoother collaboration.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Memos are direct, formal internal documents that broadcast policies, procedures, or official business to employees within an organization, serving to clarify issues and prevent misinformation.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What a memo is: an internal organizational document used for communicating policies, procedures, or official business, typically one-to-all rather than one-on-one.
• Why memos matter: they counter informal rumors ("the grapevine") by providing clear, official information to all employees.
• Structure: header (sender, recipients, date, subject) + body (declaration, discussion, summary).
• Tone and format: always direct (not indirect), professional, objective, and fact-based—no personal bias or ambiguity.
• Common confusion: memos vs. informal communication—memos are formal, permanent, and may have legal standing; they are not casual updates.

📋 Purpose and function

📋 What memos do

A memo (or memorandum, meaning "reminder") is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization.

• Memos broadcast information from one source to many recipients (mass communication).
• They may inform a team about project activities, announce events, or update employees on organizational actions.
• The primary purpose is to inform, though they occasionally include persuasion or a call to action.

🌿 Countering the grapevine

• Organizations have both formal and informal communication networks.
• The grapevine is the unofficial, informal network characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo.
  • Example: one person hears someone might be laid off, and the rumor spreads and transforms—soon people believe an entire department is shutting down.
• Why memos help: spelling out facts clearly for all employees addresses speculation and prevents misinformation.
  • Example: if budget cuts are coming, a memo can explain the actual changes instead of letting rumors grow.

📢 Calls to action

• Some memos ask employees to take specific action.
• Example from the excerpt: on February 13, 2009, Panasonic's upper management issued a memo asking all employees to buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products, arguing it would benefit everyone.
• While not all memos require personal spending, they often represent the organization's interests and may highlight common ground between business and employee benefit.

🏗️ Structure and format

🏗️ Header components

A memo has a header that clearly shows:

• Who sent it (sender/author)
• Who the intended recipients are (audience)
• Date
• Subject line

Pay particular attention to the title of individuals in the header (e.g., job titles, roles).

📝 Body structure

The body contains three parts:

Part	Purpose
Declaration	Uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic (like an introduction)
Discussion	Elaborates or lists major points related to the topic (like a body)
Summary	Serves as a conclusion, wrapping up the message

• This mirrors the standard writing format of introduction, body, and conclusion, but with memo-specific terminology.
• The excerpt provides a sample memo figure illustrating this format.

✅ Five tips for effective memos

👥 Audience orientation

• Always consider the audience and their needs.
• Avoid ambiguity: an acronym or abbreviation known to management may not be known by all employees.
• Goal: clear and concise communication at all levels of the organization.
• Example: if the memo will be posted and distributed widely, ensure every term is understandable to everyone, not just specialists.

🎩 Professional, formal tone

• Memos are often announcements where the sender speaks for part or all of the organization.
• The communication is linear: from the organization to the employees (not a two-way conversation, though feedback may be requested).
• Legal standing: memos may reflect policies or procedures and can reference the employee manual.
• Don't confuse: while memos may request feedback, the announcement itself is formal and authoritative, not casual.

🎯 Subject emphasis

• The subject line must be clear and concise.
• Be specific: name the exact topic rather than using vague terms.
• Example: write "Thanksgiving weekend schedule" instead of "holiday observance."

➡️ Direct format

• Memos are always direct, never indirect.
• The purpose is announced clearly and immediately.
• Don't confuse: some business writing allows a choice between direct and indirect approaches, but memos do not—they must be direct.

🧊 Objectivity

• Memos are a place for just the facts.
• Maintain an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest.
• Avoid subjectivity: no opinions or personal feelings should be displayed.
• The memo represents the organization, not the individual writer's personal views.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Letters are formal, brief written communications that represent an organization to external recipients and must follow structured conventions to project professionalism and communicate effectively.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What letters are: brief messages (one to two pages) sent to recipients outside the organization, often printed on letterhead.
• Five-part structure: heading, introduction, body, conclusion, and signature line form a complete message.
• Key principle: letters represent you and your company in your absence, so clarity, conciseness, and error-free presentation are essential.
• Common confusion: letters vs memos—letters go to external recipients and are more formal; memos are internal organizational communication.
• Four main types: cover letters, letters of inquiry, job application letters, and follow-up letters each serve distinct purposes.

📝 Core structure of letters

📝 The five main areas

Every letter follows a standard framework:

Area	Purpose
Heading	Names the recipient, often including address and date
Introduction	Establishes the purpose
Body	Articulates the message
Conclusion	Restates the main point and may include a call to action
Signature line	Sometimes includes contact information

✍️ Writing principles

Because letters represent you and your company in your absence, they must meet specific standards:

• Language should be clear, concise, specific, and respectful
• Each word should contribute to your purpose (no filler)
• Each paragraph should focus on one idea (single-topic rule)
• The parts should form a complete message (coherent whole)
• The letter should be free of errors (proofread carefully)

Example: If you're requesting information, every sentence should either introduce yourself, state your request, or express appreciation—nothing extraneous.

🎯 Four common letter types

📄 Cover letters

Cover letters accompany reports or documents sent to supervisors, briefly explaining the purpose and major findings.

• Why they matter: Even if your supervisor authorized the project, they likely manage many employees and projects and need a reminder.
• What to include: Brief explanation of the report's purpose and your major findings.
• Example: When submitting a technical report, the cover letter reintroduces the project scope and highlights key results.

❓ Letters of inquiry

Letters of inquiry request information about a company or organization, such as job openings or grant funding opportunities.

Structure approach:

• Opening paragraph: introduce yourself
• Second paragraph: clearly state your purpose and/or request
• For very specific information: use list format for clarity
• Conclusion: friendly tone showing appreciation for help you will receive

Example: An organization might write to ask whether a company anticipates job openings in the near future or funds grant proposals from non-profit groups.

💼 Job application letters

Job application letters introduce yourself and your skills to a potential employer, often setting the first impression.

Key differences by field:

Field	Length	Content focus
Business	Typically no more than one page	Simply highlight skills and qualifications in accompanying resume
Education	More fully developed	Detailed discussion of experience and how it benefits the institution; provides information not evident in resume/CV

• Critical point: This letter often sets a first impression, so demonstrate professionalism in format, language use, and proofreading.
• Don't confuse: The letter complements but does not duplicate the resume—it introduces and contextualizes your qualifications.

🙏 Follow-up letters

Follow-up letters express appreciation after someone has responded to your request or considered your job application.

• When to send: Any time you have made a request of someone.
• After job interviews: Especially important for demonstrating professionalism and attention to detail.
• Purpose: Thank the recipient for their time and reinforce your interest.

🎨 Format and presentation

🎨 Traditional block-style format

The excerpt mentions fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter (though it does not list all fifteen in the provided text).

• Letters are often printed on letterhead paper to represent the business or organization.
• The format has expectations in terms of both language and structure.
• Your specific organization may have its own format and requirements.

📋 Audience and organizational expectations

• Audience expectations: Readers may have their own ideas of what constitutes a specific type of letter.
• Organizational standards: Pay attention to the expectations associated with your particular writing assignment.
• Adaptability: Many types of letters exist with adaptations in form and content, but core principles remain consistent.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Technical writers must identify and adapt to four distinct audience types—experts, technicians, executives, and nonspecialists—because each group has different levels of technical knowledge and different needs for the information.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Four main audience types: experts, technicians, executives, and nonspecialists, each with different knowledge levels and purposes.
• Knowledge spectrum: ranges from experts who design and theorize to nonspecialists who simply want to use or understand products.
• Executives vs. experts: executives make decisions but often have as little technical knowledge as nonspecialists—a common confusion point.
• Primary vs. secondary audiences: executives are often the primary audience for technical writers; nonspecialists are often secondary.
• Why it matters: audience analysis is the most important consideration in planning, writing, and reviewing technical documents; lack of audience adaptation is a root cause of problems in professional documents.

👥 The four audience categories

🔬 Experts

Experts: the people who know the business or organization (and possibly the theory and the product) inside and out.

• What they do: design, test, and know everything about the subject.
• Background: often have advanced degrees; operate in academic settings or in research and development areas of government and technology.
• Knowledge level: highest theoretical and comprehensive understanding.

🔧 Technicians

Technicians: the people who build, operate, maintain, and repair the items that the experts design and theorize about.

• What they do: hands-on work with products—building, operating, maintaining, repairing.
• Knowledge type: highly technical but of a more practical nature (not theoretical like experts).
• How they differ from experts: practical application focus rather than design and theory focus.

💼 Executives

Executives: the people who make business, economic, administrative, legal, governmental, political decisions about the products of the experts and technicians.

• What they do: make decisions about products—business, economic, administrative, legal, governmental, political.
• Knowledge level: likely to have as little technical knowledge as nonspecialists.
• Common confusion: don't assume executives have technical knowledge just because they make decisions about technical products.
• Importance: for many technical writers, executives will be the primary audience.

🧑 Nonspecialists

Nonspecialists: readers who have the least technical knowledge of all.

• What they want:
  • Use new products to accomplish their tasks.
  • Understand technology enough to make informed decisions (e.g., voting in elections).
  • Learn about technical matters out of curiosity, with no specific practical reason.
• Knowledge level: least technical knowledge of all four categories.
• Role: often represent the secondary audience for technical documents.

📊 Comparing the four types

Audience Type	Primary Role	Knowledge Level	Typical Context
Experts	Design, theorize, test	Highest (theoretical + comprehensive)	Academic, R&D
Technicians	Build, operate, maintain, repair	High (practical/applied)	Hands-on technical work
Executives	Make decisions	Low (similar to nonspecialists)	Business, government, administration
Nonspecialists	Use, understand, learn	Lowest	General public, end users

🎯 Why audience type matters

🎯 Adaptation is essential

• The excerpt emphasizes that adapting writing to meet the needs, interests, and background of readers is the most important consideration in planning, writing, and reviewing documents.
• Root cause of problems: lack of audience analysis and adaptation causes most problems in professional, technical documents.
• Where it shows most: instructions are where poor audience adaptation surfaces most glaringly.

🎯 Primary vs. secondary audiences

• Primary audience: the main intended readers; for many technical writers, this will be executives.
• Secondary audience: additional readers who may also use the document; nonspecialists often fall into this category.
• Don't confuse: the same document may need to serve multiple audience types, requiring careful balance in technical depth and explanation.

🎯 Practical implications

Example: If writing for executives, remember they make decisions but likely have minimal technical knowledge—so provide context and explanations similar to what you would give nonspecialists, but frame it around decision-making needs.

Example: If writing for technicians, focus on practical application details rather than theoretical background, since they need to know how to build and maintain, not just understand the theory.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective technical writing requires identifying your audience's category and characteristics—such as background, needs, and variability—so you can tailor content to make it understandable and useful for the right readers.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Four audience categories: experts, technicians, executives, and nonspecialists—each with different technical knowledge levels and document expectations.
• Key characteristics to analyze: background (knowledge, experience, training), needs and interests (what readers expect and demand), and other demographics (age, residence, gender, etc.).
• Common complication—mixed audiences: one document may serve multiple audience types (e.g., technical and administrative readers) or have wide variability within a single category.
• How to distinguish: executives often have as little technical knowledge as nonspecialists, but their role is decision-making rather than using or learning about the product.
• Adaptation strategy: write for the majority while using appendixes, headings, or cross-references to support minority segments who need extra help.

👥 The four audience categories

🔬 Experts

These are the people who know the business or organization (and possibly the theory and the product) inside and out.

• They designed, tested, and understand everything about the subject.
• Often hold advanced degrees and work in academic settings or research and development.
• Highest level of theoretical and technical knowledge.

🔧 Technicians

These are the people who build, operate, maintain, and repair the items that the experts design and theorize about.

• Possess highly technical knowledge, but of a more practical nature than experts.
• Focus on hands-on implementation rather than theory or design.

💼 Executives

These are the people who make business, economic, administrative, legal, governmental, political decisions about the products of the experts and technicians.

• Make decisions about products but often have as little technical knowledge as nonspecialists.
• Don't confuse: executives may lack technical expertise despite their authority; they are decision-makers, not technical users.
• The excerpt identifies this as the primary audience for many writers.

🌐 Nonspecialists

These readers have the least technical knowledge of all.

• Want to use new products to accomplish tasks or understand technology enough to make informed choices (e.g., voting decisions).
• May be curious about technical matters without specific practical reasons.
• Likely to represent your secondary audience.

🔍 Key characteristics to analyze

📚 Background—knowledge, experience, training

• What to assess: how much knowledge, experience, or training you can expect in your readers.
• The dilemma: if readers lack certain background, should you supply it automatically?
• Example: writing a guide for software that runs under Microsoft Windows—how much Windows knowledge can you assume? If you provide too much background, you increase work and cost; if you provide too little, customers may get frustrated.
• The answer depends partly on how small the segment needing background information is.

🎯 Needs and interests

• What to determine: what your audience will expect and demand from your document.
• Plan by imagining how readers will want to use your document.
• Example: a smartphone manual—what do readers expect to find? A background report on global warming for a real estate association—what do they want to read about, and equally important, what do they not want to read about?

📊 Other demographic characteristics

• Many other reader characteristics might influence document design and writing.
• Examples include: age groups, type of residence, area of residence, gender, political preferences.
• The excerpt emphasizes these are potential factors, not always decisive.

🧩 Complications in audience analysis

🔀 More than one audience

• Your report may serve multiple audience types simultaneously.
• Example: technical people (experts and technicians) and administrative people (executives) may both read the same document.

Two strategies:

1. Write all sections so all audiences can understand them.
2. Write each section strictly for its intended audience, then use headings and section introductions to guide readers to relevant information.

📏 Wide variability within an audience

• Even within a single category, background may vary widely.
• The trade-off:
  • Writing to the lowest common denominator → cumbersome, tedious, book-like report that turns off the majority.
  • Not writing to the lowest level → you lose that minority segment.
• Common approach: most writers target the majority of readers and sacrifice the minority needing more help.
• Alternative solutions: put supplemental information in appendixes or insert cross-references to beginners' books.

❓ Unknown audiences

• The excerpt mentions unknown audiences as a complicating factor but does not elaborate on strategies for this scenario.

🛠️ Using audience analysis in writing

✍️ Draft with audience needs in mind

• After analyzing your audience, use that information to guide your drafting.
• Writing can be refined over many drafts—don't expect perfection initially.
• With each subsequent draft, think more carefully about your readers and revise accordingly.

🎛️ Adaptation controls

• The excerpt introduces "controls" for making technical information more understandable for nonspecialist audiences.
• These controls refer to information you refine when putting your final report together.
• Important: be aware of audience needs even in early drafting stages, not just final revisions.

➕ Provide the right information

• Add information readers need to understand your document.
• Check for missing key information:
  • A critical series of steps from instructions.
  • Important background that helps beginners understand the main discussion.
  • Definitions of key terms.
• The excerpt emphasizes filling gaps that would otherwise leave readers confused or unable to use the document.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

After analyzing your audience, you must adapt content, organization, sentence style, and visual design through multiple drafts to make technical information understandable and useful for your specific readers.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Iterative refinement: writing should be revised over many drafts, thinking more carefully about readers with each pass.
• Four adaptation categories: provide the right information, guide readers through structure, craft effective sentences, and make documents visually appealing.
• Information balance: add what readers need, omit what they don't, and adjust the technical level to match audience expertise.
• Common confusion: having the right information vs. pitching it at the right level—content may be correct but too technical or too simple for your audience.
• Every decision depends on audience: from content to language to layout, all aspects must keep readers' needs in mind.

📝 Providing the right information

➕ Adding necessary information

• Check for missing key information that readers need to understand your document.
• Examples of what might be missing:
  • Critical steps in instructions
  • Important background for beginners
  • Definitions of key terms
• Example: A set of instructions missing a crucial middle step will confuse readers even if everything else is clear.

➖ Removing unnecessary information

• Unnecessary information confuses and frustrates readers because they feel obligated to read it.
• Example: Theoretical discussion can probably be removed from basic instructions—it adds no practical value for that audience.
• Don't confuse: information that's interesting to you vs. information your readers actually need.

🎯 Adjusting information level

You may have the right information but "pitched" at the wrong technical level:

Problem	Solution
Too high or too low technically	Adjust complexity to match audience expertise
Wrong audience type	Rewrite for your actual audience (e.g., technicians vs. experts)
Design notes as instructions	Transform product-design notes into user-friendly instructions

💡 Using examples effectively

• Examples are "one of the most powerful ways to connect with audiences, particularly in instructions."
• Analogies are especially helpful when explaining technical concepts.
• Match example level to audience: homespun examples may not help experts; highly technical examples may miss nonspecialist readers.

🧭 Guiding readers through structure

🗺️ Reorganizing information

• You can have all the right information but arrange it in the wrong way.
• Common problems:
  • Too much background up front (readers get lost)
  • Too little background (readers lack context)
• Example: In instructions, sometimes it's better to feed in chunks of background at the points where they are immediately needed, rather than dumping it all at the beginning.

🔗 Strengthening transitions

Transition words: words like "therefore," "for example," "however" that indicate the logic connecting thoughts.

Two techniques for clearer connections:

1. Add transition words to show logical relationships between sections, paragraphs, and sentences
2. Echo key words accurately—repeat the same terms rather than varying word choice

• Don't confuse: In creative writing, varying vocabulary is good; in technical prose, consistency prevents confusion.
• Example: A report about software for architects should use "software" repeatedly, not alternate with "program," "application," "tool."

📖 Writing stronger introductions

People read with more confidence when they have the "big picture":

Level	What to include
Whole document	Topic, purpose, audience, and contents
Major sections	Mini-introductions with topic and overview of subtopics
Paragraphs/groups	Topic sentences giving overview of what's coming

• Think of these as "road maps" that help readers navigate unfamiliar territory.

✍️ Crafting effective sentences

🎭 Changing sentence style and length

Style choices that improve readability:

• Voice: Use imperative and "you" phrasing in instructions (not passive voice or third-person)
• Tone: Personalize writing; make it relaxed and informal rather than passive and person-less
• Verbs: Use active verbs instead of "be" verb phrasing
• Length: Average 15–25 words per sentence; mistrust sentences over 30 words

Why this matters: Direct, immediate writing means "readers don't have to dig for it."

✂️ Editing for clarity and economy

• Wordy writing style is hard or frustrating to read.
• Practical exercise: Try reducing overall word/page/line count by 20 percent as an experiment.
• You'll find "a lot of fussy, unnecessary detail and inflated phrasing you can chop out."

🎨 Making documents visually appealing

📊 Adding and varying graphics

Graphics should match audience expertise:

Audience type	Graphics characteristics
Nonspecialists	More graphics, simpler ones, more "decorative" graphics
Specialists	More detailed, more technical graphics

📐 Breaking up or consolidating text

• For nonspecialist readers, use shorter paragraphs (6–8 lines maximum).
• Notice: Paragraphs in specialist documents are typically much longer.

🔖 Using structural elements

Cross-references: Point nonspecialist readers to background sources when you can't fully explain a topic on the spot.

Headings and lists:

• Dense paragraphs can intimidate readers
• Search drafts for topic changes (add headings) and listings of things (make vertical lists)
• Look for paired listings (terms + definitions) that can become two-column lists
• Warning: Don't force this formatting or overdo it

🖋️ Typography and layout choices

For nonspecialist readers:

• Shorter lines (bring in margins)
• Larger type sizes
• Sans-serif fonts (e.g., Arial) for online readers
• Serif fonts (e.g., Times New Roman) for print texts

🎯 The central principle

Every aspect of technical writing depends on who will read your report:

• Content decisions
• Language choices
• Layout design

All communication must keep readers' needs in mind throughout the writing process.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A proposal is a document that asks an audience to approve, fund, or grant permission for a project, and it must sell both the project and the writer as the right person to complete it.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What a proposal is: an offer or bid to complete a project, asking for approval, funding, or permission.
• What makes it a proposal: it must ask the audience to approve the project or hire you to do the work, not just recommend an idea.
• Common confusion: a proposal is not the same as a feasibility report—a feasibility report only recommends for or against a project; a proposal adds elements that request approval to proceed.
• Audience-centered thinking: successful proposals provide the information the recipient needs to feel confident approving the project and choosing you to complete it.
• Why it matters: proposals demonstrate that a problem exists and pitch an improvement to a specific audience with authority to move the idea forward.

📝 What defines a proposal

📝 Core definition

A proposal is an offer or bid to complete a project for someone.

• It is not just an explanation or recommendation; it actively asks the audience to approve, fund, or grant permission.
• Proposals may include technical background, survey results, feasibility information, and recommendations, but what makes it a proposal is the request for approval or authorization.

🎯 What a proposal must accomplish

A proposal should enable the audience to:

• Decide whether to approve the project.
• Decide whether to approve or hire you (or your organization) to do the work.

How to achieve this: Put yourself in the recipient's place and think about what information they would need to feel confident having you complete the project.

🔍 Selling both project and writer

• Some proposals must sell the project itself (convince the audience the project is worthwhile).
• All proposals must sell the writer or organization as the right one to complete the project.
• This dual purpose distinguishes proposals from other technical documents.

🆚 Proposal vs. feasibility report

🆚 How they differ

Document type	What it does	What it lacks or includes
Feasibility report	Studies the merits of a project and recommends for or against it	Does not ask for approval to proceed
Proposal	Includes feasibility-like content plus asks for approval, funding, or permission	Adds elements requesting authorization and positioning the writer to do the work

🔄 Turning a feasibility report into a proposal

• Example scenario: You write a document explaining how a new technology works, showing benefits, and urging management to install it.
• By itself: This is more like a feasibility report.
• To make it a proposal: Add elements that ask management for approval for you to go ahead with the project.
• Don't confuse: recommending an idea ≠ proposing to execute it yourself.

🎓 Proposals in a technical writing course

🎓 The assignment context

• In a technical writing course, the proposal is an opportunity to present an idea to a specific, named audience.
• The idea should improve a certain aspect of a company, organization, center, or other business.
• You must be able to conduct thorough research that you will integrate into your final report.
• Some courses may require scholarly research as one of the proposal elements—check with your instructor.

🎯 Planning your proposal

• Remember the basic definition: an offer or bid to complete a project.
• Think about what information the recipient needs to decide confidently.
• Keep the audience's needs in mind throughout: content, language, and layout must all serve the reader.

🏢 How proposals come about

🏢 Formal scenario

• A company issues a public announcement requesting proposals for a specific project.
• This announcement is called a request for proposals (RFP).
• RFPs may be issued through websites, emails, social media, newspapers, or trade journals.
• Interested firms or individuals write proposals summarizing qualifications, project schedules, costs, and approach.
• The recipient evaluates all proposals, selects the best candidate, and works up a contract.

💬 Informal scenario

• Example: You want to investigate bringing new technology into your workplace to increase productivity.
• You meet with your supervisor and try to convince her of the idea.
• She responds: "Write me a proposal and I'll present it to upper management."
• This informal request is more like the kind of proposal you will write in a technical writing course.
• Don't confuse: even informal proposals must include the key elements that enable decision-making and position you as the right person for the project.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proposals can be categorized by their audience (internal vs. external) and by whether they were requested (solicited vs. unsolicited), and understanding these distinctions helps writers tailor their approach and content appropriately.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Two main classification systems: proposals are divided by audience (internal/external) and by request status (solicited/unsolicited).
• Internal vs. external: internal proposals go to someone within your organization and may require less detail; external proposals go between separate organizations.
• Solicited vs. unsolicited: solicited proposals respond to a request (like an RFP); unsolicited proposals are not requested and may need to first convince the recipient that a problem exists.
• Common confusion: a solicited proposal can happen formally (through an RFP) or informally (your boss asking you to "write me a proposal").
• RFPs trigger the proposal process: a request for proposals (RFP) is a public announcement that invites firms or individuals to submit proposals for a specific project.

📂 Classification by audience

🏢 Internal proposals

An internal proposal: a proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a government agency, etc.).

• The recipient is part of the same organization as the writer.
• You may not need to include certain sections (such as qualifications).
• Less information may be required overall because the recipient already knows your organization.
• Example: proposing a new technology upgrade to your supervisor within the same company.

🤝 External proposals

An external proposal: one written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity.

• Written between separate, independent entities.
• The typical example is an independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm.
• Requires more complete information because the recipient may not know you or your organization.
• This kind of proposal may be either solicited or unsolicited.

📬 Classification by request status

✅ Solicited proposals

A solicited proposal: one in which the recipient has requested the proposal.

• The recipient has asked for proposals to be submitted.
• Can happen at different scales:
  • Formal level: a company sends out requests for proposals (RFPs) through mail, websites, emails, social media, newspapers, or trade journals.
  • Local/informal level: your boss asks you to "write up a proposal" after you explain an idea.
• The recipient already expects to receive proposals and is ready to evaluate them.
• Example: firms interested in a project respond to an RFP by summarizing their qualifications, project schedules, costs, and approach.

📮 Unsolicited proposals

Unsolicited proposals: those in which the recipient has not requested proposals.

• The recipient did not ask for the proposal.
• Extra challenge: you sometimes must convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.
• Requires more persuasive work upfront to establish why the proposal matters.
• Don't confuse: even though unsolicited proposals are not requested, they still follow proposal structure—they just need additional justification at the start.

🔄 How proposals are initiated

📢 The RFP process

Request for proposals (RFP): a public announcement requesting proposals for a specific project.

How the formal process works:

1. A company sends out a public announcement (RFP) through various channels.
2. Interested firms or individuals write proposals in response.
3. Proposals typically include: qualifications, project schedules and costs, and approach to the project.
4. The recipient evaluates all proposals, selects the best candidate, and works up a contract.

💬 The informal process

• Can start with a conversation or meeting.
• Example: you meet with your supervisor to discuss bringing in new technology; she responds by saying "Write me a proposal and I'll present it to upper management."
• This informal request still results in a solicited proposal—just without the formal RFP process.
• This is more like the kind of proposal you will write in a technical writing course.

📊 Summary comparison

Classification	Type	Key characteristic	What the writer must do
By audience	Internal	Within same organization	May include less detail; qualifications may be omitted
	External	Between separate entities	Must include complete information; sell yourself/organization
By request	Solicited	Recipient requested it	Respond to stated needs; follow RFP guidelines
	Unsolicited	Recipient did not request it	First convince that a problem/need exists, then propose solution

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proposals arise in many workplace contexts—from formal competitive bidding to informal internal pitches—and successful technical proposals focus on practical problems that can be investigated and documented, not on values, beliefs, or purely historical topics.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Internal vs external: internal proposals stay within one organization and may need less detail; external proposals go between independent entities and often require full qualifications sections.
• Solicited vs unsolicited: solicited proposals respond to a request (RFP); unsolicited proposals must first convince the recipient that a problem exists.
• Common confusion: not all research topics fit technical writing—values-based, historical, or literary topics do not qualify as technical proposals.
• Typical scenarios: proposals often offer to investigate a problem, deliver a seminar with materials, or create simplified guides for complex systems.
• Why it matters: understanding proposal types and appropriate topics helps you shape content, decide what sections to include, and meet course or workplace requirements.

🔀 Types of proposals

🏢 Internal vs external proposals

Internal proposal: a proposal to someone within your own organization (business, government agency, etc.).

• You may not need certain sections (like qualifications) or as much detail.
• Example: proposing to your supervisor that the office adopt new productivity technology.

External proposal: written from one independent organization or individual to another separate entity.

• Typical example: an independent consultant proposing a project to another firm.
• External proposals can be either solicited or unsolicited.

Don't confuse: internal proposals are not just "shorter"—they assume shared organizational context, so you can skip background the recipient already knows.

📬 Solicited vs unsolicited proposals

Type	What it means	Key difference
Solicited	Recipient has requested the proposal (e.g., through an RFP or direct ask)	You can assume the recipient recognizes the need
Unsolicited	Recipient has not requested proposals	You must first convince the recipient that a problem or need exists

• Solicited proposals respond to formal requests for proposals (RFPs) published in news sources or sent by mail, or to informal requests (e.g., your boss asks you to "write up a proposal").
• Unsolicited proposals require an extra persuasive step: establishing the problem before presenting your solution.

Example: You explain a new technology idea to your boss; she gets interested and asks you to write a proposal—this is solicited (even though informal). If you send the proposal without her asking, it is unsolicited.

🎯 Typical proposal scenarios

🔍 Problem investigation and reporting

• A company has a problem or wants improvement.
• The company sends out a request for proposals.
• You respond by offering to investigate, interview, and make recommendations—all presented in a report.

🎓 Seminar with materials

• An organization wants a seminar in your area of expertise.
• You propose to deliver the seminar.
• The proposal includes a package deal: attendees receive a guide or handbook.

📘 Simplified documentation

• An agency starts using a new online data system.
• The existing user's manual is technically complex and hard to read.
• You receive an RFP to write a simplified guide or startup guide.

📖 Handbook for membership

• A nonprofit organization focused on a particular issue wants a consultant.
• The consultant will write a handbook or guide for the membership.
• The document presents information on the issue in a way members can understand.

⚠️ What topics qualify as technical

✅ Appropriate technical topics

• Practical problems that can be investigated and documented.
• Topics for which you can readily find scholarly research (if your course requires integration of such material).
• Projects that produce actionable recommendations, guides, or reports.

❌ Topics that do not qualify

• Values and beliefs: these are not technical.
• Historical topics: do not fall into the technical category.
• Literary topics: do not qualify.

Don't confuse: interviews and first-hand sources can be valuable, but a report relying heavily on these may not meet course outcomes if scholarly research integration is required.

🗣️ Check with your instructor

• Always verify topic ideas with your instructor before starting.
• Ensure your topic fits the course requirements and the definition of "technical."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proposals typically contain several standard sections—introduction, background, benefits, work description, method, schedule, costs, and conclusions—but writers should adapt these to their specific project rather than treating them as rigid requirements.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Not a fixed template: the common sections are typical patterns, not absolute requirements; order and inclusion depend on the specific proposal and assignment.
• Introduction must motivate: it should identify the proposal, encourage the reader to continue, and preview contents (especially important for unsolicited proposals).
• Background justifies the need: this section demonstrates your view of the problem or opportunity and may need to convince the audience that action is warranted.
• Common confusion: don't assume every section must appear or follow the presented order—always refer to your assignment requirements and consider what your unique topic needs.
• Persuasive elements throughout: benefits, feasibility, and method sections all serve to argue for project approval and demonstrate your capability.

📝 Opening sections

📝 Introduction requirements

The introduction must accomplish several tasks (not necessarily in this order):

• State clearly that the document is a proposal for a specific project
• Include at least one motivating statement to encourage reading and approval (particularly for unsolicited or competitive proposals)
• Provide an overview of the proposal's contents

Don't confuse: a motivating statement with a simple announcement—the goal is to persuade, not just inform.

📖 Background on the problem or opportunity

Background section: discusses what has brought about the need for the project—what problem, what opportunity exists for improving things, what the basic situation is.

Why this section matters:

• Demonstrates your particular view of the problem
• For unsolicited proposals, it's almost a requirement—you must convince the audience the problem exists and deserves attention
• Even if the audience knows the problem well, writing it out shows your understanding

Example: Management of day care centers may need to ensure all employees know CPR due to new state mandates, or a timber land owner may want to produce saleable timber without environmental damage.

🎯 Persuasive and descriptive sections

🎯 Benefits and feasibility

Most proposals briefly discuss:

• Advantages or benefits of completing the proposed project
• Likelihood of success (feasibility)

Purpose: Acts as an argument in favor of approving the project. In unsolicited proposals, this section is especially important—you are trying to "sell" the audience on the project.

📋 Description of proposed work

Description of the proposed work: describes the finished product of the proposed project.

For a technical writing course, this means:

• Describing the written document you propose to write
• Identifying its audience and purpose
• Providing an outline
• Discussing length, graphics, binding, and similar details

Reality check: At this early stage, you might not know everything required to complete your project, but you should have an idea of some necessary steps. Other work might include conducting training seminars or providing ongoing services.

🔧 Method, procedure, theory

Why include this section:

• Shows the audience you have a sound, thoughtful approach to the project
• Demonstrates you have the knowledge and expertise to complete the work
• Acts as an additional persuasive element

This section explains how you will go about completing the proposed work.

⏰ Planning and resource sections

⏰ Schedule

Most proposals show:

• Projected completion date
• Key milestones for the project
• For large projects: dates for delivering progress reports
• If specific dates aren't possible: cite amounts of time for each phase

💰 Costs and resources required

Most proposals detail project costs, whether internal or external:

Project type	What to include
External projects	Hourly rates, projected hours, equipment and supplies costs, total project cost
Internal projects	Hours needed, equipment and supplies to be used, assistance from other people in the organization

Don't confuse: Internal projects with "free" projects—they still have costs that should be listed.

🏁 Closing and customization

🏁 Conclusions

The final paragraph or section should:

• Bring readers back to focus on the positive aspects of the project
• Urge them to contact you to work out details
• Remind them of the benefits of doing the project
• Make one last argument for you or your organization as the right choice

🔍 Special project-specific sections

Remember that the preceding sections are typical or common in written proposals, not absolute requirements.

Key question to ask yourself: What else might your audience need to understand:

• The project itself
• The need for it
• The benefits arising from it
• Your role in it
• Your qualifications to do it

What else do they need to see in order to approve the project and approve you to do it?

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proposals in technical writing courses often require specialized elements—audience descriptions, source lists, graphics plans, and outlines—that help both plan the project and allow instructors to verify its viability.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why these elements matter: they serve dual purposes—giving proposal-writing experience and enabling instructor feedback on project feasibility.
• Four core specialized elements: audience description, information sources, graphics list, and topic outline.
• Common confusion: the proposal audience vs. the final report audience—they may be different people with different technical backgrounds.
• Terminology precision: "proposal" refers only to the initial stage; later documents (progress reports, drafts, final reports) are separate deliverables.
• Audience adaptation principle: content and language must shift between documents for the same project when audiences differ.

📋 The four specialized elements

👥 Audience description

Describe the audience of the final report (which may be different than the audience for the proposal).

• You must identify who will read the final report, not just the proposal.
• Include:
  • Titles and job roles
  • Technical background level
  • Ability to understand the report content
• Why it matters: helps you plan appropriate language and depth for the final deliverable.

📚 Information sources

• List the sources you will use for research.
• Purpose: demonstrate that adequate information exists for your topic.
• Include citations for:
  • Books
  • Articles
  • Reference works
  • Other relevant source types
• This shows the project is researchable, not speculative.

📊 Graphics plan

• List graphics by type and content.
• Example types: charts, diagrams, tables, photographs.
• Warning from the excerpt: if you cannot think of any graphics your report would need, you may not have a good topic—brainstorm with your instructor.
• Graphics planning signals you understand how to communicate technical information visually.

🗂️ Outline

• Provide a structured preview of topics and subtopics for the final report.
• Shows you have thought through the logical organization of content.
• Helps instructors assess whether the scope is appropriate.

🎯 Understanding proposal context

🎓 Why technical writing courses require these elements

The excerpt identifies three purposes for proposal assignments:

Purpose	What it means
Experience	Practice writing proposals as a professional skill
Planning	Force you to think through your major project early
Feedback loop	Give instructors a chance to ensure you have a viable topic

• Some elements may not appear in real-world proposals but are pedagogically necessary.
• Don't confuse: course requirements with universal proposal standards—these are learning scaffolds.

📅 Proposal as one stage in a longer process

• The proposal is submitted once at the beginning.
• After approval, you produce other documents:
  • Progress report
  • Outline
  • Annotated bibliography
  • Graphics draft
  • Report draft
  • Final report
• Terminology warning: use "proposal" only when referring to the initial proposal stage, not later deliverables.

👔 Audience adaptation across documents

🔄 Different audiences for different documents

The excerpt provides a concrete scenario:

Example: A proposal for a solar panel installer policy manual.

• Proposal audience: an executive with broad (not deep) technical knowledge
• Final manual audience: technicians with specialized, detailed knowledge
• Implication: the same project requires different content depth and language in different documents.

🎨 How to adapt

• Review the chapter on Audience Analysis (referenced in the excerpt).
• Adjust:
  • Technical terminology density
  • Explanation depth
  • Assumed prior knowledge
• Don't confuse: writing for the proposal reader with writing for the final report reader—they may have opposite needs (executive overview vs. technical detail).

✅ Revision reminder

🔍 Key checkpoint

The excerpt ends with a revision checklist heading: "Use the right format."

• This signals that format compliance is a critical review criterion.
• Ensure your proposal matches the assignment sheet specifications.
• Format errors can undermine otherwise strong content.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proposals in technical writing courses serve multiple purposes—teaching proposal writing, planning major projects, and enabling instructor feedback—and require careful attention to audience differences across project stages.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Three purposes of proposals in technical writing courses: gaining proposal-writing experience, starting project planning, and allowing instructor guidance on topic viability.
• Proposals are one stage in a longer process: after the proposal, other documents follow (progress reports, outlines, drafts, final reports).
• Audience shifts across project stages: the proposal audience may differ from the final deliverable audience, requiring different content and language adjustments.
• Common confusion: don't use the term "proposal" for later stages—it refers only to the initial proposal stage of the project.
• Course-specific elements: proposals in academic settings may include elements that wouldn't appear in real-world proposals because they serve instructional purposes.

📚 The role of proposals in technical writing courses

📚 Three instructional purposes

The excerpt identifies why proposals are assigned in technical writing courses:

1. Experience: Students practice writing proposals as a professional skill.
2. Planning: The proposal initiates planning for a larger assignment.
3. Feedback: Instructors can review and guide students toward viable topics.

• These purposes explain why academic proposals may include elements not typical in workplace proposals.
• Example: An instructor might require specific sections (audience descriptions, source lists, outlines) to ensure students have thought through their project thoroughly.

🎯 Course-specific vs. real-world proposals

• The excerpt notes that some required elements "may not seem appropriate in a real-world proposal."
• Academic proposals serve dual purposes: they are both practice documents and planning tools.
• Don't confuse: what you include in a course proposal may differ from what a workplace proposal would contain.

🔄 Proposals within the project lifecycle

🔄 One stage among many

The proposal is the beginning of a weeks-long research and writing process that goes through many stages until it reaches the end point: the technical report.

• After submitting the proposal once, students may produce:
  • Progress reports
  • Outlines
  • Annotated bibliographies
  • Graphics drafts
  • Report drafts
  • Final reports

⚠️ Terminology precision

• Use the term "proposal" only when specifically referring to the proposal stage.
• Don't confuse: later documents in the project are not proposals—they are progress reports, drafts, or final deliverables.

👥 Audience considerations across project stages

👥 Different audiences for different documents

The excerpt provides a concrete example to illustrate audience shifts:

Document	Audience	Knowledge level
Proposal	Executive at solar power company	Very broad technical knowledge
Final manual	Residential solar panel installers (technicians)	More specialized knowledge

🔧 Adjusting content and language

• The same project produces documents for different audiences.
• Content and language must be adjusted to fit each writing situation.
• Example: A proposal to an executive uses broader explanations; the resulting manual for technicians uses more specialized terminology.
• The excerpt references the chapter on Audience Analysis for more guidance on these adjustments.

🎓 Proposal audience in academic settings

• In a technical writing course, the proposal audience should be a named audience (not the instructor).
• This simulates real-world proposal writing where you address decision-makers or stakeholders.
• Don't confuse: even though your instructor grades the proposal, you should write it as if addressing the project's actual stakeholder.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A proposal revision checklist ensures that your document uses the correct format, clearly identifies what you are proposing, addresses the right audience, and follows logical organization with proper formatting elements.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of the checklist: to verify format, clarity, logical structure, and audience alignment before submission.
• Core requirements: clear summary/introduction, exact identification of what you propose to do, and confirmation that a written document is involved.
• Formatting elements: correct use of sub-headers, bullets, and other formatting styles in logical order.
• Common confusion: address the proposal to your named audience, not your instructor, even though the instructor will read it.
• Format verification: check with your instructor for the requested format and review any provided samples.

📋 Format and structure verification

📋 Using the right format

• The first checkpoint is to verify you are using the format your instructor requested.
• Action step: look at any samples provided by the instructor.
• This is a foundational requirement—wrong format can undermine even good content.

🗂️ Logical organization

Ensure that the sections of your proposal are in a logical, natural order.

• Sections should flow naturally from one to the next.
• Use sub-headers and bullets correctly to guide the reader.
• Apply any other formatting styles appropriately.
• Example: if your proposal discusses problem → solution → implementation, that order should be clear and consistent.

🎯 Content clarity requirements

🎯 Clear summary or introduction

• Write a clear summary of (or introduction to) your proposal topic.
• This orients the reader to what follows.
• Don't confuse: this is not the full proposal, but a concise overview of the topic.

✅ Exact identification of your proposal

• Identify exactly what you are proposing to do.
• Be specific, not vague.
• The reader should understand precisely what action or project you are suggesting.

📄 Written document requirement

• Ensure that a report—a written document—is somehow involved in the project you are proposing to do.
• This applies if that is what your instructor has assigned.
• Example: if you propose creating a training program, clarify that you will produce a written training manual or report documenting the program.

👥 Audience alignment

👥 Addressing the named audience

• Address the proposal to your named audience—not your instructor.
• This is a common confusion: even though your instructor reads and grades the proposal, you write to the audience specified in the assignment.
• Example: if the assignment asks you to propose a policy manual to a company executive, address the executive, not the instructor.
• This reflects real-world practice where proposals go to decision-makers, not teachers.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Understanding traditional information formats—primary vs. secondary sources, popular vs. professional vs. scholarly publications, and the information timeline—helps researchers navigate the chaotic modern information landscape and select appropriate sources for their needs.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Primary vs. secondary sources: Primary sources are original materials (interviews, research results, firsthand accounts); secondary sources analyze or summarize primary sources.
• Three publication types: Popular magazines target general readers, professional/trade journals serve practitioners in a field, and scholarly journals publish peer-reviewed research for experts.
• The information timeline: Information about an event appears in predictable order—news media first (same day), then magazines (weeks), then scholarly journals and books (months to years).
• Common confusion: The same publication can contain both primary and secondary material depending on timing and purpose (e.g., a newspaper article written the day of an event vs. weeks later analyzing it).
• Why formats matter: Recent graduates struggle with research because they lack skills in analyzing and synthesizing multiple information types from varied sources.

📰 Primary and secondary sources

📰 What primary sources are

Primary sources: materials that allow researchers to get as close as possible to original ideas, events, and empirical research; they include creative works, firsthand or contemporary accounts of events, and publication of empirical observations or research results.

• These are the "raw materials" of research—the original evidence.
• Examples include: interviews, letters, emails, tweets, Facebook posts, photographs, speeches, newspaper articles written at the time of an event, works of literature, lab notes, field research, and published scientific research.
• The key is directness: the source comes from direct participation or observation.

📊 What secondary sources are

Secondary sources: materials that analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources.

• These interpret or discuss primary sources rather than presenting original evidence.
• Examples include: journal articles, books, literature reviews, literary criticism, meta-analyses of scientific studies, documentaries, biographies, and textbooks.
• Even sources presenting facts or descriptions are secondary unless based on direct participation or observation.

🔀 When the line blurs

• Newspapers and news websites contain both primary and secondary material.
• Timing matters: An article published on the day of an event (e.g., November 6, 2012 about election results) is primary because it was written at the time of the event.
• Analysis makes it secondary: An article published two weeks later analyzing how the candidate raised money would be secondary.
• Don't confuse: the same publication type can serve different roles depending on when it was written and its purpose.

🛠️ Technical writing examples

Primary	Secondary
Interview with subject matter expert	Documentary on an issue or problem
Survey data	News article about scientific study
Published scientific study	Literature review on a research topic

📚 Popular, professional, and scholarly publications

📰 Popular magazines

• Audience: General public or knowledgeable non-experts.
• Examples: People, Sports Illustrated, Rolling Stone (recent events, pop culture); Harper's, Scientific American, The New Republic (more in-depth on wider range of subjects).
• Characteristics: Overview articles, current events, general interest; glossy appearance with many graphics and advertisements; written by journalists or specialists; reviewed by magazine editor only.
• No bibliography: Popular magazines do not include references or citations.

🔧 Professional/trade journals

• Audience: Professionals working in a specific discipline or field.
• Purpose: Report news and trends in the field, but not original research; may include product/service reviews, job listings, and advertisements.
• Characteristics: Articles of interest to practitioners; offer advice and tips for those in the trade; glossy with advertising specific to that field; sometimes include bibliographies; reviewed by magazine editor and possibly a board.
• Example author: Someone currently working in the field.

🎓 Scholarly journals

• Audience: Experts, researchers, and scholars in a discipline.
• Purpose: Publish original research and noteworthy contributions to the field.
• Characteristics:
  • Long, narrowly focused articles with specialized vocabulary
  • Structured format: abstract, literature review, methodology, results, conclusion, references
  • Little or no advertising
  • Charts, graphs, and statistics common
• Author: Researcher or expert in the field.

🔍 Peer review process

Peer review: an editorial board of respected scholars in a discipline (peers of the authors) reviews all articles submitted to a journal and decides if the article provides a noteworthy contribution and should be published.

• Peer-reviewed (or refereed) journals are scholarly journals that only publish articles passing through this review process.
• This is a widely accepted indicator of quality scholarship in a given discipline or field.
• Don't confuse: not all scholarly-looking publications are peer-reviewed; check whether the journal uses peer review.

📊 Comparison table

Feature	Magazine	Professional journal	Academic journal
Audience	General public	People employed in a field	Researchers, scholars, experts
Bibliography	No	Sometimes	Yes
Article characteristics	Overview, current events, general interest	Interest to field practitioners; advice and tips	Long, narrowly focused, specialized vocabulary; structured (abstract, lit review, methodology, results, conclusion, references)
Review policy	Magazine editor	Editor and possibly a board	Editorial board/scholars in field; peer-reviewed
Author	Journalist or specialist	Someone working in the field	Researcher/expert in field
Appearance	Glossy, many graphics, many advertisements	Glossy, advertising specific to trade, lengthy articles	Charts/graphs/statistics, little or no advertising

⏱️ The information timeline

⏱️ How information appears over time

Information timeline: a predictable pattern according to which information about an event or issue appears in publications.

• Information does not appear simultaneously in all publication types.
• Understanding this timeline helps you plan research topics and know where to search.
• Implication for recent topics: Very recent topics may require relying more heavily on news media, popular magazines, and primary sources (like interviews you conduct yourself) because scholarly publications take months to years.

📅 Timeline stages

Time after event	Sources	Type of information	Locating tools
Day of event	Television, radio, web	General: who, what, where (usually not why)	Web search tools, social networks
Days later	Newspapers, TV, radio, web	Varies; some analysis, statistics, photographs, editorials, opinions; still no bibliography at this stage	Web search tools, newspaper and periodical databases
Weeks later	Popular and mass market magazines	Still in reporting stage; general, editorial, opinions, statistics, photographs; usually no bibliography yet	Web search tools, newspaper and periodical databases
Months later	Professional and scholarly journals	Research results; detailed and theoretical discussion; bibliography available at this stage	General and subject-specific databases
Year(s) later	Scholarly journals, books, conference proceedings, reference sources (encyclopedias)	In-depth coverage; edited compilations of scholarly articles; general overview with factual information; bibliography available	Library catalog, general and subject-specific databases, library reference collection

🔄 Non-linear research process

• Although information publication follows a linear timeline, the research process itself is not linear.
• You might start with scholarly articles but discover you lack background knowledge, so you consult an encyclopedia or book.
• Or a newspaper editorial might inspire you to consult scholarly literature to verify a claim.
• Key point: You will probably start research at different points and move among resource types depending on the information you need.
• Don't confuse: the timeline describes publication patterns, not a required order for your research steps.

Example: An organization researching a very recent technology development cannot wait for scholarly journals (which take months to publish), so they must use news sources, interviews with experts, and industry reports instead.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The information timeline describes the predictable pattern of when different types of sources publish information about an event or issue, from immediate news coverage to scholarly analysis years later, which helps researchers plan where to search based on their topic's recency.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What the timeline shows: information about an event appears in different publication types at predictable intervals—from same-day news to years-later scholarly journals.
• Why it matters for research: very recent topics may require relying on news media and primary sources because scholarly publications take months to years to appear.
• Common confusion: the information timeline is linear (publication sequence), but the research cycle itself is not linear—you may need to move back and forth among source types.
• Time-to-publication varies by source type: television/web publish same day, newspapers within days, popular magazines within weeks, professional/scholarly journals within months to years.
• Information depth changes over time: early sources provide general facts (who, what, where), while later sources offer research results, detailed analysis, and bibliographies.

⏰ How the timeline works

📅 Publication sequence by time

The excerpt presents a predictable pattern from event to publication:

Time after event	Source types	Information characteristics
Day of event	Television, radio, web	General: who, what, where (usually not why)
Days later	Newspapers, TV, radio, web	Varies; some include analysis, statistics, photographs, editorials, opinions
Weeks later	Popular and mass market magazines	Still in reporting stage; general, editorial, opinions, statistics, photographs; usually no bibliography at this stage
Months later	Professional and scholarly journals	Research results; detailed and theoretical discussion; bibliography available at this stage
Year(s) later	Scholarly journals, books, conference proceedings, reference sources (encyclopedias)	In-depth coverage; edited compilations of scholarly articles; general overview giving factual information; bibliography available

🔍 What changes as time passes

• Depth increases: early coverage is general and factual; later coverage becomes detailed and theoretical.
• Analysis emerges: initial reports focus on basic facts (who, what, where); scholarly sources explain why and provide research-based conclusions.
• Documentation appears: bibliographies and references are typically absent in early sources but present in scholarly publications.
• Synthesis happens: books and reference sources compile and organize information from multiple scholarly articles.

🎯 Planning research with the timeline

🆕 Recent topics require different strategies

If you choose a topic that is very recent, you may have to rely more heavily on news media, popular magazines, and primary sources (such as interviews you conduct) for your research.

• Scholarly publications take months to years to appear, so very current events won't yet have scholarly coverage.
• For recent topics, researchers must use earlier-stage sources: news reports, popular magazines, and conduct their own primary research (interviews, observations).
• Example: An event that happened last week will have television/web/newspaper coverage but no scholarly journal articles yet.

🔎 Where to search at each stage

The excerpt provides locating tools matched to each timeline stage:

• Same day: web search tools, social networks
• Days later: web search tools, newspaper and periodical databases
• Weeks later: web search tools, newspaper and periodical databases
• Months later: general and subject-specific databases
• Years later: library catalog, general and subject-specific databases, library reference collection

⚠️ Don't confuse timeline with research process

• The information timeline is linear: publications appear in a predictable sequence.
• The research cycle (mentioned in section 4.3) is not linear: you may start at different points and move among resource types.
• Example: You might try to read scholarly articles first, discover you lack background knowledge, then consult an encyclopedia or book to build understanding before returning to scholarly sources.
• Or: a statement in a newspaper editorial might inspire you to consult scholarly literature to verify if research supports the claim.

📚 Source characteristics across the timeline

📰 Early sources (day to weeks)

• Focus: reporting what happened
• Content: general facts, basic details, sometimes opinions and editorials
• Documentation: typically no bibliography or references
• Audience: general public seeking current information

🔬 Later sources (months to years)

• Focus: analyzing and explaining why/how
• Content: research results, theoretical discussion, in-depth coverage
• Documentation: bibliographies and references included
• Audience: researchers, scholars, professionals seeking detailed understanding

🎓 Long-term sources (years later)

• Books and conference proceedings: edited compilations of scholarly articles on a topic
• Reference sources: encyclopedias providing general overviews with factual information
• Purpose: synthesis and comprehensive coverage after sufficient research has accumulated

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The research process is non-linear and cyclical, requiring researchers to move flexibly among different resource types depending on their evolving information needs rather than following a fixed sequence.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Non-linearity of research: Unlike the linear information publication timeline, actual research involves moving back and forth among different resource types.
• Starting points vary: Researchers may begin at different entry points in the cycle depending on their background knowledge and immediate needs.
• Adapting to knowledge gaps: Encountering unfamiliar material (e.g., scholarly articles) may require stepping back to consult more foundational sources (e.g., encyclopedias or books).
• Common confusion: Don't assume research follows the same linear path as information publication—you may need to consult newer sources (newspapers) before older ones (scholarly articles), or vice versa.
• Flexibility is key: The type of information you need at any given moment determines which resource type to consult next.

🔄 The cyclical nature of research

🔄 Why research is not linear

• The excerpt contrasts the information publication timeline (which is linear, moving from day-of-event news to years-later scholarly books) with the research process (which is cyclical).
• Researchers do not simply start with the newest sources and work backward, or start with encyclopedias and work forward.
• Instead, the process involves moving around among resource types based on what you discover and what you need to understand next.

🔁 Moving between resource types

The research cycle: a non-linear process where researchers start at different points and move among various resource types depending on their information needs.

• You might start by trying to read scholarly articles but find you lack necessary background knowledge.
• To fill that gap, you would consult an encyclopedia or a book to build foundational understanding.
• Conversely, you might read a statement in a newspaper editorial that prompts you to check scholarly literature for supporting research.
• Example: A researcher begins with a newspaper article about a technology trend, realizes they need deeper understanding, consults a book for background, then moves to scholarly journals for research data, and may circle back to news sources for recent developments.

🧭 Navigating the research cycle

🧭 Multiple entry points

• The excerpt emphasizes that "you will probably start your research at different points."
• There is no single correct starting place—it depends on:
  • Your existing knowledge of the topic
  • The specific information you need at that moment
  • What you discover as you research

🔀 Responding to information needs

• The key principle: the type of information you need determines which resource to consult next.
• If you need general overview → encyclopedia or reference source
• If you need background context → books
• If you need current events or opinions → newspapers, magazines
• If you need detailed research findings → scholarly journals
• Don't confuse: needing to consult a "simpler" source (like an encyclopedia) after starting with scholarly articles is not "going backward"—it's adapting intelligently to your knowledge gaps.

🎯 Practical implications

🎯 Flexibility in approach

• The research cycle diagram (referenced in the excerpt) illustrates this revolving, non-linear movement.
• Researchers must be comfortable with:
  • Changing direction when they encounter unfamiliar concepts
  • Consulting "easier" sources to build understanding before returning to complex materials
  • Following leads from one source type to another

🎯 The important takeaway

• The excerpt states: "The important thing to remember is that you will probably start your research at different points and move around among resource types."
• This flexibility is not a weakness or inefficiency—it is how effective research actually works.
• Example: An organization researching a policy issue might start with recent news coverage, realize they need historical context from books, then check scholarly journals for empirical evidence, and finally return to current news to see how the issue is being discussed today.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Research databases, library catalogs, government sources, and expert interviews are specialized tools that allow you to find scholarly and technical content far more effectively than general web searches alone.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What research databases offer: specialized search engines that find articles, videos, images, and e-books across thousands of journals at once, including content not visible in Google.
• General vs specialized databases: general databases cover many subjects and are good starting points; specialized databases focus on one subject or content type and are powerful for narrow topics.
• How databases work: they are made up of records (one item each) containing fields (title, author, date, subject) and use controlled vocabulary to group all items on one topic under a single term.
• Common confusion: different authors may use different names for the same concept (e.g., "community colleges" vs "junior colleges"), but controlled vocabulary pulls them all together in one search.
• Beyond databases: library catalogs show physical and online holdings; interlibrary loan and consortia let you borrow from other libraries; government sites and expert interviews provide additional credible sources.

🗄️ Understanding research databases

🗄️ What databases are and why they matter

Research database: a specialized search engine for finding articles and other types of content.

• Databases let you search thousands of journal titles at once to find the latest scientific and technical research.
• They often contain content that does not show up in Google searches.
• Most require subscriptions; check with your college, public, or corporate library for access.
• Databases are not tied to the physical items in any one library—they contain records of articles, documents, book chapters, and other resources from many sources.

What you can find:

• Journal articles (many with full text)
• Videos, images, diagrams
• E-books
• Citations with tools to find full text elsewhere or request via interlibrary loan

🧱 How databases are structured: records and fields

• Records: each record describes one information item (e.g., a journal article, book chapter, image).
• Fields: parts of a record that contain specific elements like title, author, publication date, and subject.

Everyday analogy:

• Example: storing contacts in your phone creates a record for each person; you enter descriptions into fields (first name, last name, phone number, email, address). Organizing contacts into "work," "family," and "friends" is like controlled vocabulary.

🏷️ Controlled vocabulary

Controlled vocabulary: designated terms or phrases for describing concepts, found in fields labeled "subject term," "subject heading," or "descriptor."

Why it matters:

• It pulls together all items in a database about one topic, even when authors use different names.
• Example: searching for "community colleges" will also find articles that call them "junior colleges," "two-year colleges," or "technical colleges," because the database uses one controlled term for all.

Don't confuse:

• Controlled vocabulary is not the same as the words an author uses in the article; it is a standardized term assigned by the database to group related content.

🔍 Types of databases

🌐 General (multidisciplinary) databases

• Contain resources for many subject areas.
• Good starting points because they search a large number of sources from a wide variety of disciplines.
• Content often includes professional publications, scholarly journals, newspapers, magazines, books, and multimedia.

Common examples:

• Academic Search Premier
• Academic OneFile
• JSTOR

🎯 Specialized (subject-specific) databases

• Devoted to a single subject or a specific type of content.
• Often search a smaller number of journals or focus on one content type (e.g., streaming films, music, images, statistics, data sets).
• Very powerful after you have selected a narrow topic or if you already have expertise in an area.
• Help you find information you would not find in a general database.

When to use:

• After narrowing your research topic.
• When you need depth in a particular area.
• Check your library's website for subject guides or ask a librarian.

Examples:

Database	Subject Focus
PsycInfo	Psychology
BioOne	Life Sciences
MEDLINE	Medicine/health
ARTstor	Fine arts images

📚 Library catalogs and resource sharing

📚 What library catalogs contain

Library catalog: a database that contains all of the items located in a library as well as all of the items to which the library offers access, either in physical or online format.

• Allows you to search by title, author, subject, and keyword.
• Uses controlled vocabulary like research databases.
• Includes physical items (books, DVDs) and online resources (e-books, streaming films, e-journals).

🗺️ Call numbers

Call number: like a street address for a book; it tells you exactly where the book is on the shelf.

• Most academic libraries use the Library of Congress classification system (starts with letters, followed by numbers and letters).
• Call numbers group items about a given topic together in a physical place.

🤝 Consortia and interlibrary loan (ILL)

Why libraries share:

• Single libraries cannot collect all resources on a topic.
• Libraries share resources through consortia membership and interlibrary loan.

Consortia:

• Groups of libraries with special agreements to loan materials to one another's users.
• Example: Central Oregon Community College belongs to the Orbis Cascade Alliance (37 academic libraries in the Pacific Northwest) with a shared lending program called Summit.
• When you search your library catalog, results include items from other consortium institutions that you can request and have delivered.

Interlibrary loan (ILL):

• Allows you to borrow books, articles, and other resources regardless of where they are located.
• If your library doesn't have full text access to an article or cannot provide a book or DVD, you can request it through ILL.
• Available at both academic and public libraries.

🏛️ Government information and expert sources

🏛️ Government information

• Official U.S. government websites end in .gov.
• Provide a wealth of credible information: statistics, technical reports, economic data, scientific and medical research, legislative information.
• Typically freely available without a subscription (unlike research databases).

How to search:

• USA.gov is a search engine for government information and a good starting point.
• Specialized search tools are available for many topics.
• State governments have their own websites and search tools for state-specific topics.
• Ask a librarian if you get lost—they have special training in navigating government information.

Examples:

Specialized Government Source	Subject Focus
PubMed Central	Medicine/health
ERIC	Education
Congress.gov	Legislation and the legislative process

👤 Experts as sources

• People are a valuable, though often overlooked, source.
• Particularly appropriate for emerging topics or topics with local connections.

How to conduct effective interviews:

• Do background work on the topic before contacting the person.
• Familiarity with your topic and its terminology makes it easier to ask focused questions.
• Focused questions are important for effective research; asking general questions rarely leads to the best information.
• Acknowledge the time and effort someone is taking, but realize that people passionate about subjects enjoy sharing what they know.
• Ask experts about additional resources they would recommend.

Don't confuse:

• General questions vs focused questions—specifics lead to better information, even if they seem detailed.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective searching requires breaking topics into key concepts, choosing synonyms, and using advanced techniques like Boolean operators, phrase searches, and truncation to find relevant results efficiently.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core strategy: Break topics into main concepts and use keywords, not full sentences or questions.
• Boolean operators: AND narrows results (all terms required), OR broadens results (any term accepted), NOT excludes terms.
• Phrase searches and truncation: Quotation marks search exact phrases; truncation symbols search multiple word variations at once.
• Common confusion: Databases vs. web search engines—databases contain fewer items, so alternative search terms are more important to avoid getting too few results.
• Combining techniques: Use parentheses around OR terms when mixing operators to ensure the system interprets your search correctly.

🔑 Keyword Development

🔑 What makes keywords effective

The single most important search strategy is to choose effective search terms.

• Do not enter entire sentences or full questions into search boxes.
• Do identify the main concepts in your topic and use only those key terms.
• Break down your topic into its core ideas, not supporting details.

🔄 Why synonyms matter

• Think of synonyms or related terms for each concept before you start searching.
• Alternative terms give you flexibility when initial searches produce no results or too few results.
• Database vs. web difference: Databases contain fewer items than the entire web, so having backup terms is especially important to avoid dead ends.
• Even in web search engines like Google, thoughtful term combinations yield better results than single attempts.

📝 Example approach

The excerpt provides a keyword brainstorming example for "violence in high schools":

• Main concepts: violence, high schools
• Related terms might include synonyms or narrower/broader concepts
• This preparation step happens before you type anything into a search box.

🔗 Boolean Operators

🔗 What Boolean operators do

Boolean operators are a search technique that will help you focus your search, particularly when your topic contains multiple search terms, and connect various pieces of information to find exactly what you are looking for.

• Three operators: AND, OR, NOT
• Capitalization rule: Write them in ALL CAPS to distinguish them from the ordinary words "and," "or," "not" (which most search engines ignore).
• Spelling rule: Spell out AND instead of using commas, ampersands, or plus signs; spell out NOT except in Google, where you must use the minus sign (-).

➕ AND: Narrowing your search

Use AND to:

• Narrow your results
• Tell the database that ALL search terms must be present in the resulting records

Example: cloning AND humans AND ethics

• The result set is the overlap where all three terms appear together.
• Visualized as the purple triangle where all circles intersect in a Venn diagram—a small, focused set.
• More AND terms = fewer, more specific results.

➗ OR: Broadening your search

Use OR to:

• Connect two or more similar concepts (synonyms)
• Broaden your results, telling the database that any one of your search terms can be present

Example: (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

• The result set includes records containing any of those terms.
• Visualized as all three circles in a Venn diagram—a large set.
• OR is useful when you have multiple ways to describe the same concept.

➖ NOT: Excluding terms

Use NOT to:

• Exclude words from your search
• Narrow your search by telling the database to ignore concepts that may be implied by your search terms

Example: cloning NOT sheep

• Results include cloning topics but exclude anything about sheep.
• Visualized as one circle minus the overlapping gray circle (sheep subset is removed).
• Useful when a term has multiple meanings and you want to eliminate irrelevant ones.

🔀 Combining operators

You can mix AND, OR, and NOT in one search.

Critical rule: Use parentheses around terms connected with OR to ensure the database interprets your search correctly.

Example: ethics AND (cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)

• This finds records that discuss ethics AND at least one of the three science terms.
• Without parentheses, the database might misinterpret the logic.
• The shaded area in a Venn diagram shows the overlap between "ethics" and the combined OR group.

🎯 Additional Search Techniques

🎯 Phrase searches

The problem:

• Web and research databases usually treat your search terms as separate words.
• They look for each word appearing anywhere in a document, regardless of location relative to other words.

The solution:

• Put the phrase in quotation marks: "community college"
• The system will search for that exact sequence of words together.

Result:

• Typically fewer results than searching for the words individually.
• An effective way to focus your search when you need a specific multi-word concept.

✂️ Truncation (stemming)

Truncation, also called stemming, is a technique that allows you to search for multiple variations of a root word at once.

How it works:

• Enter the root of your word and end it with the truncation symbol.
• Most databases use * as the truncation symbol, but !, ?, and # are also used in some systems.
• Check the help files if you're not sure which symbol to use.

Example: genetic* searches for genetic, genetics, genetically

Why it's useful:

• Saves time by capturing all word forms in one search.
• Ensures you don't miss relevant results because of slight wording variations.

📊 Comparison of Boolean Operators

Operator	Purpose	Effect on results	Example	When to use
AND	Require all terms	Narrows (fewer results)	cloning AND humans AND ethics	When you have multiple distinct concepts that must all be present
OR	Accept any term	Broadens (more results)	(cloning OR genetics OR reproduction)	When you have synonyms or related concepts describing the same idea
NOT	Exclude terms	Narrows (removes subset)	cloning NOT sheep	When a term has unwanted meanings or associations you need to eliminate

Don't confuse:

• AND makes results smaller (more restrictive), even though you're adding more terms.
• OR makes results larger (less restrictive), even though it looks like you're being more specific.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Before using any information source in academic or professional work, you must evaluate it for quality using five basic criteria—authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and audience—to ensure your own work remains credible and accurate.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why evaluation matters: Your work's quality depends on your sources' quality; credible sources lead to credible work.
• Five evaluation criteria: authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and audience—each with specific questions and indicators.
• Comparative evaluation: Compare sources to one another in light of your specific topic; even high-quality sources may not be relevant to your needs.
• Common confusion: Quality vs. relevance—a source can be excellent but still inappropriate for your particular topic or audience.
• Where to look: Different source types (books, journals, websites) reveal quality indicators in different locations.

📋 The five evaluation criteria

🎓 Authority

Authority: whether the person, organization, or institution responsible for the intellectual content is knowledgeable in that subject.

Key question: Is the creator knowledgeable in this subject?

Indicators to look for:

• Formal academic degrees
• Years of professional experience
• Active and substantial involvement in the particular area

Where to find it:

• Books: title page, forward, preface, afterward, dust jackets, bibliography
• Journals: periodical covers, editorial staff, letters to the editor, abstract, bibliography
• Websites: URL, About Us, Publications, appearance

✓ Accuracy

Accuracy: how free from error the information is.

Key question: How free from error is this piece of information?

Indicators to look for:

• Correct and verifiable citations
• Information is verifiable in other sources from different authors/organizations
• Author is an authority on the subject

Where to find it:

• Books: title page, forward, preface, afterward, dust jackets, text, bibliography
• Journals: periodical covers, text, bibliography
• Websites: URL, About Us, home page, awards, text

⚖️ Objectivity

Objectivity: how objective (unbiased) the information is.

Key question: How objective is this piece of information?

Indicators to look for:

• Multiple points of view are acknowledged and discussed logically and clearly
• Statements are supported with documentation from a variety of reliable sources
• Purpose is clearly stated

Where to find it:

• Books: forward, preface, afterward, text, bibliography
• Journals: abstracts, text, bibliography, editorials, letters to the editor
• Websites: About Us, site map, text, disclaimers, membership/registration

📅 Currency

Currency: when the information was published or produced.

Key question: When was the item of information published or produced?

Indicators to consider:

• Publication date
• Assignment restrictions (e.g., only articles from the last 5 years)
• Your topic and how quickly information changes in your field
• Example: technology or health topics require very recent information to reflect rapidly changing areas of expertise

Where to find it:

• Books: title page, copyright page, bibliography
• Journals: title page, bibliography, abstracts
• Websites: home page, copyright, What's New

👥 Audience

Audience: who the information was written for or the product was developed for.

Key question: Who is this information written for or this product developed for?

Indicators to look for:

• Language
• Style
• Tone
• Bibliographies

Where to find it:

• Books: forward, preface, afterward
• Journals: letters to the editor, editorial, appearance
• Websites: home page, About, Mission, Disclaimer, Members only

🔍 Applying evaluation in practice

🎯 Comparing sources for relevance

The excerpt emphasizes that evaluation is not just about quality in isolation—you must compare sources to one another in light of your specific topic.

Example scenario: You are writing about bicycle commuting and building urban infrastructure to encourage bicycling. You have three sources about bicycle safety:

• One written for children
• One for adult recreational bicyclers
• One for traffic engineers

The right choice: The source for traffic engineers is clearly most appropriate for your topic, even if the other two are high-quality sources.

Key insight: Relevance to your specific topic matters as much as general quality.

🔎 Finding indicators takes practice

• Until you have evaluated many sources, finding the indicators can be difficult, especially in web sources
• The excerpt provides a reference table showing where to look in different source types
• Different formats (books, journals, websites) reveal quality information in different places

⚠️ Don't confuse quality with relevance

A source can be:

• High-quality but not relevant to your specific topic
• Written by an authority but for the wrong audience
• Accurate and objective but outdated for your needs

Always evaluate both the inherent quality of the source AND its appropriateness for your particular project.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Citations allow technical writers to give credit to source authors, demonstrate thorough research, and join the professional conversation while avoiding plagiarism.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why cite: to credit others' work, show research thoroughness, and establish credibility and objectivity.
• Two forms: in-text citations (within the paper) and full citations (on the References or Works Cited page).
• Multiple styles exist: APA (author-year), MLA (author-page), and discipline-specific styles like ASME; consistency within one document is essential.
• Common confusion: in-text citations vs. full citations—in-text citations point to a source during the paper; full citations provide complete publication details at the end.
• Tools available: online guides (Purdue OWL), citation builders, and research databases offer automated help, but always double-check for accuracy.

🎯 Why technical writers cite

🎯 Core purposes of citations

Citations serve multiple functions in technical writing:

• Give credit to the original authors or creators of material.
• Demonstrate thoroughness by showing the writer has done comprehensive research.
• Establish credibility and objectivity by referencing quality source material.
• Join the conversation on a professional or scholarly topic.

The excerpt emphasizes that "technical writers reveal and share source information" for both ethical reasons (credit) and professional reasons (demonstrating research quality).

📚 Academic context

• This chapter is designed for an academic course in technical writing.
• The conventions described apply to producing reports in academic settings.
• The information transfers easily to other professional and academic writing tasks.

📝 Two forms of citations

📝 In-text citations

In-text citations: used within the text of your paper to indicate from which source listed in your works cited or bibliography you are extracting information or quotations.

How they work:

• Appear inside the body of the paper.
• Point readers to the full citation in the References or Works Cited page.
• Make it clear which source is being used at any given time, even when multiple sources are present.

Format varies by style:

Style	Format	Example
APA	Author-year	Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei, 2015).
MLA	Author-page number	Students should choose their study locations carefully for best results (Lei 197).
Other styles	Footnotes or endnotes	Continuously sequenced numbers refer to citations elsewhere in the document

Key rule: Every in-text citation must have a corresponding full citation at the end of the paper.

📋 Full citations

Full citations: generally have three major parts, though the order and formatting depend on the citation style.

Three major parts:

1. Creator information: author(s), editor(s), speaker(s), or the body that created it.
2. Content distinguisher: title of an article, chapter, book, or presentation.
3. Location/creation information: where and when it was published or presented; may include volume and issue numbers, page numbers, URL, and access date.

Example elements (from the excerpt's sample):

• Author: Lei, Simon A.
• Article Title: Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature
• Source Title: College Student Journal
• Volume and Issue: Volume 49, Issue 2
• Publication Date: 2015
• Page Numbers: 195-198

Same source, different styles:

APA: Lei, S. A. (2015). Variation in study patterns among college students: A review of literature. College Student Journal, 49(2), 195-198.

MLA: Lei, Simon A. "Variation in Study Patterns among College Students: A Review of Literature." College Student Journal, vol. 49, no. 2, 2015, pp. 195-198. Academic Search Premier. Accessed 27 May 2016.

Don't confuse: You find citation elements in database fields, library catalog records, or on the information item itself—not by memorizing formats.

🎨 Citation styles and consistency

🎨 Common academic styles

Style	Full name	Typical disciplines	In-text format
APA	American Psychological Association	Social sciences, sciences	Author-year
MLA	Modern Language Association	Humanities	Author-page
ASME	American Society of Mechanical Engineers	Mechanical engineering	Discipline-specific

⚖️ Choosing and sticking with a style

• For academic assignments, the instructor usually specifies which style to use.
• Some subjects have their own discipline-specific citation types.
• Critical rule: "stick with it consistently throughout your report"—do not mix styles.

Example: If you start with APA, all in-text citations must use author-year format, and all full citations must follow APA structure.

🛠️ Tools and resources

🛠️ You don't need to memorize formats

The excerpt emphasizes: "you do not need to memorize citation style formats." Instead, use excellent online guides and tools, or ask instructors or librarians for help.

🔧 Recommended tools

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL):

• Covers MLA, APA, and Chicago styles.
• Includes guidance for in-text citations, bibliography/works cited pages, and many source types.
• Described as "invaluable."

Citation Builder (University of North Carolina):

• Automated form: select the style, enter information, and it generates a citation.
• Warning: "It's always a good idea to double check these citation-generator tools!"

Zotero (George Mason University):

• A sophisticated research management tool.
• Saves and organizes sources; creates citations.
• Requires more time and effort to learn, but "the time is worth it when you're researching and writing a lot."

🔍 Database citation tools

• Many research databases and library catalogs offer citation tools.
• Look for a button or link labeled "cite" or "citation."
• Caution: "be sure to double check it for accuracy. They aren't always correct."

Example: The excerpt shows a citation button in PubMed Central, a freely available research database.

Don't confuse: Automated tools are helpful starting points, but they are not infallible—always verify the output against style guides.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Plagiarism—presenting someone else's work as your own—carries serious consequences in both academic and professional settings, and the primary defense is proper citation of all sources.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What plagiarism is: claiming language, ideas, theories, or material developed by another person without acknowledgment.
• Consequences are real: range from loss of course credit to expulsion (students) or job loss and career destruction (professionals), whether plagiarism is intentional or not.
• Many forms exist: from copying text without attribution to self-plagiarism (reusing your own work) to "patch writing" (changing a few words).
• Common confusion: ignorance is not an excuse—unintentional plagiarism carries the same consequences as intentional plagiarism.
• How to avoid it: cite all sources for words, ideas, research findings, and artistic material; only universally common knowledge can be used without citation.

🚨 What plagiarism is and why it matters

📖 Definition and scope

Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else's work as your own.

More formally:

The act of claiming language, ideas, opinions, theories, software code, artistic material, or anything else developed by another person without acknowledging that person as the source of the material.

• It covers far more than just copying text—includes ideas, theories, code, images, and any creative or intellectual work.
• The digital age makes it "incredibly easy to commit plagiarism" through cut-and-paste without awareness.
• Regardless of intent, plagiarism is dishonest, unfair, and unethical.

⚖️ Consequences in academic and professional contexts

Academic consequences:

• Range from loss of credit for a course to expulsion from school.
• Students should familiarize themselves with their institution's academic integrity policies.
• Example: Central Oregon Community College publishes student rights and responsibilities that spell out plagiarism consequences.

Professional consequences:

• Range from loss of professional reputation to job loss and career destruction.
• The stakes are high in the work world where credibility is essential.

Don't confuse: Intentional vs. unintentional plagiarism—both carry serious consequences. Ignorance is not an excuse.

🔍 Forms and examples of plagiarism

📋 Common plagiarism scenarios

The excerpt lists specific examples that count as plagiarism:

Type	Description
Direct copying	Copying and pasting from a source without attribution
Purchased work	Purchasing a paper online or from another student
Self-plagiarism	Turning in the same work in two different classes
Missing quotation marks	Failing to put quotation marks around direct quotes
Uncredited visuals	Copying diagrams, images, graphs, or photos without referencing the source
Patch writing	Copying text and changing just a few words or phrases to "put it into your own words"
Oral sources	Using information from personal interviews or conversations without citing the source
Missing citations	Failing to cite sources for any information used in your paper

🎯 Patch writing—a subtle form

• Sometimes called "putting it into your own words" but it's still plagiarism.
• Involves copying and pasting text, then changing only a few words or phrases.
• Don't confuse: true paraphrasing (rewriting ideas in your own words with citation) vs. patch writing (superficial word changes without proper attribution).

🛡️ How to avoid plagiarism

✅ What must always be cited

Credit must always be given to others for:

• Their words: either quoted or paraphrased
• Their artistic material: images, diagrams, photos, graphs
• Their research findings, analysis, and conclusions: intellectual work and discoveries

🆓 The common knowledge exception

Only information considered to be universally common knowledge, such as dates of important events and widely known facts, can be used without citing the source.

• This is a narrow exception—when in doubt, cite.
• Example: widely known historical dates or basic scientific facts that appear in many general sources.

🔗 The primary solution: citation

• The primary way to avoid plagiarism is to cite or list the sources you used.
• Citing sources tells your audience whose works you used and gives credit to the creators.
• Side benefit: provides your audience with a bibliography of relevant items on the topic.
• Citation is both an ethical obligation and a professional practice.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Progress reports serve to inform supervisors or clients about project advancement over time, reassure them of steady progress, and provide opportunities for feedback while helping writers maintain schedules and professionalism.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What progress reports communicate: completion status, current work, remaining tasks, problems encountered, and overall project health.
• When they're needed: for projects taking several weeks or months, typically at regular intervals (e.g., three, six, and nine months in year-long projects).
• Key structural sections: work accomplished, work currently in progress, and work planned for the next period.
• Multiple functions: reassurance, preview of findings, evaluation opportunities, problem discussion, schedule enforcement, and professionalism projection.
• Common confusion: format choice depends on context—memo for internal, letter for external informal, formal report for external formal communication.

📋 What Progress Reports Cover

📊 Core content elements

Progress reports explain any or all of the following:

• How much work is complete
• What part of the work is currently in progress
• What work remains to be done
• What problems or unexpected things have arisen
• How the project is going in general

Progress report: a document informing a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress made on a project over a certain period of time.

🔧 Types of projects requiring progress reports

• Design, construction, or repair of something
• Study or research of a problem or question
• Gathering of information on a technical subject

Don't confuse: Progress reports are not for quick tasks—they're written when projects take several weeks or even months to complete.

🎯 Six Key Functions

🛡️ Reassurance function

• Reassure recipients that you are making progress
• Show that the project is going smoothly
• Confirm it will be complete by the expected date

👀 Preview function

• Provide recipients with a brief look at some findings
• Share some of the work of the project

🔍 Evaluation function

• Give recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project
• Allow them to request changes

⚠️ Problem-discussion function

• Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project
• Forewarn recipients about issues

⏰ Schedule-enforcement function

• Force you to establish a work schedule
• Help ensure you'll complete the project on time

💼 Professionalism function

• Project a sense of professionalism to your work
• Enhance your organization's image

📝 Structure and Organization

🗂️ Three essential sections

The recipient wants to see three key areas:

Section	Purpose
Work accomplished in preceding period(s)	Shows what has been completed
Work currently being performed	Indicates present activities
Work planned for next period(s)	Outlines upcoming tasks

📑 Additional required sections

Beyond the three core sections, include:

• Opening paragraph: introduces the memo's purpose and reminds about the project topic
• Summary of the project: provides context
• Specific objectives: states what the project aims to achieve
• Scope or limits: defines boundaries of the project
• Research gathered: documents information collected
• Overall assessment: appraises the project at this time (usually acts as conclusion)

📖 Introduction components

The introduction should review:

• Purpose of the project
• Scope of the project
• Detailed description of the project and its history

⏱️ Timing and Format Options

📅 Typical timing

• In a year-long project, customarily three progress reports
• One after three months, six months, and nine months
• Frequency depends on project length and importance

📄 Three format choices

The format depends on the recipient, size, length, and importance:

Format	When to use
Memo	Short, informal report to someone within your organization
Letter	Short, informal report sent to someone outside your organization
Formal report	Formal report sent to someone outside your organization

Example: An organization working on an internal software upgrade would use a memo format for internal stakeholders, but a formal report for external consultants or clients.

✅ Quality Guidelines

🎯 Formatting best practices

• Use the right format (check with instructor or supervisor)
• Write a clear opening paragraph reminding recipient of the project
• Use headings to mark off different parts
• Use lists as appropriate
• Address the report to the real or realistic audience—not your instructor

🔎 Content best practices

• Provide specifics
• Avoid relying on vague, overly general statements
• Include detailed descriptions of work done on the project

Don't confuse: The audience for a progress report should be the actual project stakeholder (supervisor, client, associate), not just whoever is grading or reviewing the document in an academic setting.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Progress reports can take different forms—memo, letter, or formal report—depending on the project's duration, importance, and whether the recipient is inside or outside your organization.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Typical timing: year-long projects customarily have three progress reports at three, six, and nine months.
• Three format options: memo (internal, short), letter (external, short), or formal report (external, formal).
• Format choice depends on: report size, project length and importance, and recipient location (internal vs external).
• Common confusion: don't assume one format fits all—internal recipients typically get memos, external recipients get letters or formal reports.
• Course-specific note: the excerpt mentions writing a progress report as a thorough memo with an attached outline.

📅 When to write progress reports

⏰ Standard timing for year-long projects

• In a year-long project, there are customarily three progress reports.
• These occur after three, six, and nine months.
• The excerpt does not specify timing for shorter or longer projects, only the year-long case.

🔍 What determines timing

• The excerpt implies timing depends on project duration.
• Example: a year-long project gets reports at regular intervals (quarterly); shorter projects would likely have different schedules.

📝 Three format options

📄 Memo format

Memo: A short, informal report to someone within your organization.

• Who receives it: someone internal (within your organization).
• Characteristics: short and informal.
• When to use: for internal recipients when the report doesn't need to be lengthy or highly formal.

✉️ Letter format

Letter: A short, informal report sent to someone outside your organization.

• Who receives it: someone external (outside your organization).
• Characteristics: short and informal.
• Key distinction from memo: the recipient is external, not internal.

📊 Formal report format

Formal report: A formal report sent to someone outside your organization.

• Who receives it: someone external (outside your organization).
• Characteristics: formal (not informal like the letter).
• When to use: for external recipients when the project or report requires a more formal presentation.

🎯 What determines format choice

🧩 Three deciding factors

The excerpt identifies three factors that influence which format to use:

Factor	What it means	Impact on format
Size of the progress report	How long/detailed the report is	Larger reports may need formal format
Length and importance of the project	Project duration and significance	More important projects may require formal reports
The recipient	Internal vs external; their role	Internal → memo; external → letter or formal report

🔄 How factors work together

• These factors work in combination, not isolation.
• Example: a short report for an internal recipient on a small project → memo format; a detailed report for an external client on a major project → formal report.
• Don't confuse: "short" doesn't automatically mean "memo"—a short report to an external recipient would be a letter, not a memo.

📎 Course-specific application

📝 The course requirement mentioned

• The excerpt states: "In our course, you will write a progress report in the form of a thorough memo."
• An outline will be attached to the memo to show the recipient the content planned for the final report.
• This is a specific instructional context, not a universal rule for all progress reports.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Progress reports must include three core sections—work accomplished, work currently being performed, and work planned next—to show recipients what has been done, what is happening now, and what comes next.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The three essential sections: past work accomplished, current work in progress, and future work planned form the backbone of any progress report.
• What recipients want to see: tangible evidence of progress, current status, and next steps to understand project trajectory.
• Common confusion: these three sections are key or essential, not optional—every progress report needs all three to be complete.
• Why this structure matters: it provides a clear timeline view that helps recipients track progress and anticipate what's coming.

📋 The three key sections

✅ Work accomplished in the preceding period(s)

Work accomplished in the preceding period(s): what you have completed since the last report or since the project began.

• This section shows past progress—what has already been done.
• It reassures recipients that work is moving forward.
• Example: if reporting after three months, describe what was completed during those three months.

🔄 Work currently being performed

Work currently being performed: what you are actively working on right now.

• This section shows present status—what is happening at this moment.
• It gives recipients a snapshot of where the project stands today.
• Don't confuse: this is not what you plan to do; it's what you are doing now.

🔮 Work planned for the next period(s)

Work planned for the next period(s): what you intend to work on in the upcoming period.

• This section shows future direction—what comes next.
• It helps recipients anticipate the project's trajectory and timeline.
• Example: if this is a six-month progress report, describe what will happen between now and the nine-month mark.

🎯 Why these three sections are essential

🎯 What recipients need to know

The excerpt emphasizes that "the recipient of a progress report wants to see" all three elements:

• Accomplishments: proof that progress has been made
• Current work: understanding of present status
• Planned work: visibility into next steps

Section	Time frame	Purpose
Work accomplished	Past	Show what has been completed
Work currently being performed	Present	Show current status
Work planned	Future	Show next steps

🗺️ Creating a complete timeline view

• Together, these three sections create a past-present-future structure.
• This structure gives recipients a complete picture of the project's trajectory.
• Without all three, recipients cannot fully understand where the project has been, where it is, and where it's going.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Beyond describing work completed, current, and planned, progress reports must include an introduction reviewing the project's purpose and scope, a detailed project description with history, and an overall appraisal that typically serves as the conclusion.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core structure: Progress reports need three time-based sections (work done, current work, planned work) plus additional framing elements.
• Essential framing components: opening paragraph, project summary, objectives, scope/limits, research gathered, and overall assessment.
• Common confusion: The three time-period sections are not the entire report—they must be wrapped in context (introduction, project details, appraisal).
• Purpose of additional parts: These sections remind the recipient what the project is about and provide perspective on overall progress, not just task lists.

📋 Required framing sections

📋 Opening and introduction

• Opening paragraph: introduces the purpose of the memo and reminds the recipient about the project topic.
• This is not just a formality—it re-establishes context for the reader.
• Example: An organization sends quarterly progress reports; each opening reminds the recipient which project is being discussed and that this document tracks progress.

📋 Project background elements

The report must include:

• Summary of the project: overview of what the project entails.
• Specific objectives: what the project aims to achieve.
• Scope or limits: boundaries of what the project covers and does not cover.
• Research gathered: information collected so far.

These elements provide a "detailed description of your project and its history."

📋 Overall assessment

• Acts as the conclusion of the progress report.
• Provides an overall appraisal of the project to date.
• This is where you step back from task details and evaluate how the project is going in general.
• Don't confuse: This is not just listing what's done—it's an evaluative judgment about project health and trajectory.

🔗 How these parts work together

🔗 The complete structure

Section type	What it does	Why it matters
Opening paragraph	Establishes purpose and project identity	Orients the reader
Project details (summary, objectives, scope, research)	Provides context and boundaries	Helps reader understand what progress means
Three time-period sections	Shows work done, current, and planned	Core progress information
Overall assessment	Evaluates project status	Gives big-picture perspective

🔗 Integration principle

• The additional parts (introduction, description, appraisal) frame the three core time-based sections.
• Without these framing elements, the recipient sees only task lists without understanding the project's purpose, boundaries, or overall health.
• The appraisal "usually acts as the conclusion," meaning it wraps up the report with perspective rather than just ending with future tasks.

✅ Quality checklist considerations

✅ Format and structure

• Use the right format (memo, letter, or formal report depending on recipient and context).
• Use headings to mark off different parts, particularly the summary of work done.
• Use lists as appropriate for clarity.

✅ Content quality

• Write a clear opening paragraph that reminds the recipient of the project and states you are providing progress.
• Provide specifics—avoid vague, overly general statements about work done.
• Address the report to the real or realistic audience, not just an instructor (in course contexts).

✅ Don't confuse

• The revision checklist emphasizes clarity and specificity—progress reports fail when they rely on general statements instead of concrete details about what has been accomplished and what remains.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A revision checklist for progress reports ensures the document uses the correct format, clear structure, specific details, and appropriate audience focus before submission.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Format verification: confirm the right format (memo, letter, or formal report) with your instructor or supervisor before finalizing.
• Structural clarity: use headings to mark sections and lists to organize information, especially for summarizing work done.
• Specificity over vagueness: provide concrete details about work accomplished rather than general statements.
• Audience awareness: address the progress report to the real or realistic audience, not your instructor.
• Common confusion: don't forget that progress reports may include an attached outline to preview the final report content.

✅ Format and opening requirements

📋 Choosing the right format

The excerpt emphasizes checking format before submission:

• For a course: verify with your instructor.
• For a workplace: check with your supervisor.

The excerpt earlier mentions three possible formats (memo, letter, formal report), so confirming which one applies is the first revision step.

📝 Writing a clear opening paragraph

A clear opening paragraph reminding your recipient of the project you are working on and that you are providing progress on that project.

• The opening must do two things: remind the recipient what project you're working on, and state that this document reports progress.
• Don't assume the recipient remembers the project context—reintroduce it briefly.
• Example: An organization submits a progress report to a client; the opening should restate the project name and purpose before diving into updates.

🗂️ Structural and organizational elements

🏷️ Using headings effectively

• The excerpt instructs: "Use headings to mark off the different parts of your progress report, particularly the different parts of your summary of work done on the project."
• Headings help the recipient navigate the report quickly.
• Focus especially on the work-done section, which may have multiple subsections (e.g., research gathered, tasks completed, milestones reached).

📋 Using lists appropriately

• The checklist says "Use lists as appropriate."
• Lists improve readability and help organize parallel items (e.g., tasks completed, objectives met, next steps).
• Don't write long paragraphs when a bulleted or numbered list would be clearer.

🎯 Content quality and audience

🔍 Providing specifics, not vague statements

The excerpt warns: "Provide specifics—avoid relying on vague, overly general statements about the work you've done on the final report project."

• Vague: "I made good progress."
• Specific: "I completed the literature review section, gathering five peer-reviewed sources and drafting a 1,200-word summary."
• Specificity shows accountability and helps the recipient understand exactly what has been accomplished.

👥 Addressing the real audience

• The checklist states: "Be sure and address the progress report to the real or realistic audience—not your instructor."
• Even in a course setting, imagine a realistic recipient (e.g., a project manager, client, or supervisor).
• This keeps the tone and content professional and appropriate for workplace contexts.

📎 Additional components

📄 Including an outline

The excerpt notes: "If you will be including an outline of your report with your progress memo, you may find it helpful to move next to the chapter on creating outlines."

• Progress reports in the course context attach an outline to preview the final report's structure.
• The outline gives the recipient an advance view of the final deliverable's content and organization.
• Don't confuse: the outline is not a substitute for the progress report itself; it is a supplementary attachment.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Outlines serve as essential road maps in technical writing that help writers organize ideas and communicate development plans clearly to decision-makers.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Dual purpose: outlines help writers organize their own ideas and evidence, and also communicate plans to those with authority to approve projects.
• Working document: outlines are flexible tools that evolve through research and drafting—they are not fixed contracts.
• Specificity matters: detailed outlines show what information to gather and what to ignore, making research more efficient.
• Common confusion: rough vs. formal outlines—rough outlines are early-stage question frameworks; formal outlines contain specific details and complete sentences.
• Research integration: outlines should include bibliographic citations and in-text citations from the start to maintain ethical documentation.

🗺️ Why outlines matter

🗺️ The road map metaphor

Outlines are like a road map. They give you direction; they tell you where to go.

• The excerpt compares working without an outline to trying to drive from Oregon to New York knowing only "go east"—you lack specific guidance.
• Direction is not just about the final destination but about the path to get there.
• In technical writing specifically, outlines serve two audiences: the writer (for organization) and the approver (for communication).

🎯 Dual-purpose tool

The excerpt identifies two distinct functions:

Purpose	What it does	Who benefits
Organization	Helps writer organize ideas and evidence	The writer
Communication	Shows development plan clearly	The person with authority to move the project forward

• Both purposes require that outline parts "make sense to you and communicate your ideas clearly to your audience."

📝 Building the outline structure

📝 Basic formatting rules

The excerpt provides specific structural guidelines:

• Top level: Indicate main idea/thesis at top
• Major sections: Name and number at the left margin
• Details: Add underneath each major section; write in complete sentences when presenting details
• Indentation: Indent details related to each section underneath the major section names
• Numbering system: Alternate between numbers and letters to indicate different levels: I. A. 1. a. 1) a)

🔍 Level of detail

• Develop "as specific an outline as you can"—this specificity shows what information you must gather and, equally important, what information you can ignore.
• Use indexes, tables of contents, and headings within sources "selectively for just the information you need."
• Don't confuse: a vague outline leaves you uncertain about what to research; a specific outline focuses your effort.

🔄 The two-stage process

🌱 Stage one: rough outline

The rough outline shows you which specific topics to gather information on and which ones to ignore.

Purpose: Think of the outline as a series of questions.

The excerpt provides an example with light water nuclear reactors:

• Each section heading generates specific questions
• Example: "Pressurized Water Reactors → Major Components" generates questions like "What are the main components? What are the materials? Design? Dimensions?"
• This question-based approach clarifies what information to seek

Characteristics:

• Created in early stages before gathering information
• Less developed than the final version
• Serves as a research guide

🌳 Stage two: formal outline

Purpose: Used to develop a draft of the report after completing sufficient research.

Characteristics:

• Contains specific details and information
• Uses complete sentences for presenting details
• Much more developed than the rough outline

Important reminder: "This is a working outline and not a contract"—you may reorganize, delete sections, or add new ones as research continues.

🔬 Research integration workflow

🔬 Pre-outline preparation

Before beginning the detailed formal outline, the excerpt recommends:

1. Do preliminary reading necessary to construct a rough outline
2. Develop a rough outline with major section headings you are considering
3. Identify information sources and make bibliographic citations for each
4. Take notes while reading, determining in which sections each source material might best work

📚 Citation from the start

• Key practice: "Provide in-text citations as you develop your outline"
• Why: Doing so helps document sources thoroughly and ethically at all stages
• Practical benefit: Makes the job easier when drafting the report later
• Don't wait until the final draft to add citations—integrate them during outline development.

🔄 Continuous revision

• Change or add extra detail to the outline as the research process continues
• As you write and revise, continue filling in details, adding transitions, and providing your own understanding
• "It isn't uncommon to discover gaps in your early draft and have to go back and conduct more research"

⏱️ Work management strategy

⏱️ Chunking approach

The excerpt recommends dividing work into manageable pieces:

• Break work into "manageable, hour-long chunks"
• Goal: "make progress rather than relying on big blocks of weekend or vacation time"
• This approach makes the outline development process less overwhelming and more consistent

🎯 Selective reading

• Use the outline to guide what you read—don't try to absorb entire sources
• Focus on specific sections that answer your outline's questions
• This selective approach saves time and keeps research focused

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A rough outline serves as a working guide that frames your research as a series of questions, helping you identify which topics to investigate and which to ignore before you develop a formal, detailed outline.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of the rough outline: shows which specific topics to gather information on and which ones to ignore in the early stages.
• How to use it: think of the outline as a series of questions that guide your research.
• It's flexible: this is a working outline, not a contract—you may reorganize, delete sections, or add new ones as research continues.
• Common confusion: rough outline vs. formal outline—the rough version is an early-stage tool; the formal outline you submit will be much more developed with specific details.
• Iterative process: it's normal to discover gaps in early drafts and return to conduct more research.

📝 What a rough outline does

🎯 Guides your research focus

• The rough outline shows you which specific topics to gather information on and which ones to ignore.
• It acts as a filter in the early stages, preventing you from collecting irrelevant material.
• Example: if your outline doesn't include a section on a particular subtopic, you know not to spend time researching it.

❓ Frames research as questions

Think of the outline as a series of questions.

• Each heading or section in your outline should generate specific questions you need to answer.
• The excerpt provides a concrete example: a rough outline on light water nuclear reactors with sections like "Pressurized Water Reactors" generates questions such as "What are the main components? What are the materials? Design? Dimensions?"
• This question-based approach clarifies exactly what information you need to find.

🔄 How the outline evolves

🛠️ Working document, not a contract

• The rough outline is described as a working outline, emphasizing its flexible nature.
• As you write and revise, you will:
  • Continue filling in details
  • Add transitions
  • Provide your own acquired understanding of the subject
• You may decide to organize the final report differently, delete some information, or add new sections.

🔍 Discovering gaps

• It isn't uncommon to discover gaps in your early draft.
• When gaps appear, you have to go back and conduct more research.
• Don't confuse: finding gaps is a normal part of the process, not a sign of failure in your initial planning.

📊 From rough to formal

📋 The progression

Stage	Characteristics
Rough outline (early stage)	Series of questions; identifies topics; flexible and minimal
Formal outline (final submission)	Much more developed; contains specific details and information from anticipated sections

🎓 What gets added later

• The formal outline you will ultimately create and submit will be much more developed.
• It will contain:
  • Specific details
  • Information from your anticipated sections of your report
• The rough outline is just the starting framework for this more complete document.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The first step in integrating graphics into a technical report is matching the visual type to the kind of data you need to convey.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of graphics: visuals clarify information and make text-heavy reports more visually appealing.
• Matching data to visual type: different information types (numbers, processes, geography, lists) require different graphic formats.
• Common confusion: not all data suits all visuals—the excerpt provides a mapping table to guide selection.
• Why it matters: choosing the right graphic ensures information is communicated clearly and effectively.

📊 Matching information to visual types

📊 The core selection principle

The excerpt emphasizes that the first step when planning visuals is to consider which graphics are most appropriate for the data you want to present.

• This is a deliberate choice, not arbitrary decoration.
• The excerpt provides "general guidelines" in table form to help writers decide.

🗂️ The information-to-visual mapping

The excerpt offers a straightforward table:

Information to Convey	Visual Type
Numbers, percentages, categories	Tables, charts
Processes	Flow charts
Geographic data	Maps
Chronological or prioritized lists	Numbered lists
Non-chronological lists	Bulleted lists

How to use this table:

• Identify what kind of information you need to show.
• Match it to the recommended visual type.
• Example: If you need to show a sequence of steps in a procedure → use a flow chart.

⚠️ Don't confuse list types

• Numbered lists are for items that have an order (chronological or priority).
• Bulleted lists are for items without a specific sequence.
• Using the wrong list type can mislead readers about whether order matters.

🎯 Purpose and benefits of graphics

🎯 Why technical writers use visuals

The excerpt states two main purposes:

1. Clarify information presented in the report.
2. Break up text-heavy sections, making the report more visually appealing.

📝 Complementing text, not replacing it

Graphics are integrated "to complement text in a report."

• Visuals work alongside written explanations, not as standalone elements.
• The excerpt notes that graphics "help to clarify" information—they support understanding rather than serve as decoration.

🔍 Context from the broader chapter

🔍 Where this fits

The excerpt is part of a chapter on "Creating and Integrating Graphics."

• Section 8.1 (this excerpt) covers deciding which graphics to include.
• The excerpt mentions that visuals "can take a number of forms—tables, charts, photographs, drawings, to name a few."
• The focus here is on the initial selection decision based on data type.

🔗 What comes next

The excerpt briefly references that subsequent sections will cover:

• Audience considerations (how color meanings vary across cultures).
• Placement and context (where to put graphics and how to introduce them).
• Samples (examples of graphics in practice).

These topics are mentioned but not detailed in this particular excerpt.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

When creating graphics for technical reports, writers must consider how their audience's cultural background affects the interpretation of visual elements, particularly color choices that carry different meanings across cultures.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core principle: keep your audience in mind when creating graphics, not just for content but also for how that content appears on the page.
• Color meanings vary: the same color communicates different ideas across cultures, which may lead to unintended messages.
• Example of variation: red has very different meanings around the world, and similar differences exist for other colors.
• Common confusion: assuming color meanings are universal—what seems obvious in one culture may convey something entirely different in another.
• Design implication: color choices in graphics can communicate ideas you do not actually intend if you ignore cultural context.

🎨 Why audience matters for graphics

👥 Content and appearance both depend on audience

• The excerpt emphasizes that audience awareness applies to two dimensions:
  • What content you share (the data, information, message).
  • How that content appears on the page (visual design choices).
• This is not just about making graphics "pretty"—it's about ensuring the visual design supports accurate communication.

🌍 Cultural context shapes interpretation

• Graphics are not culturally neutral; design choices carry meaning that varies by culture.
• The excerpt specifically highlights color as a design element with culturally variable meanings.
• Ignoring these differences can result in miscommunication even when the data itself is correct.

🔴 The color example: red across cultures

🔴 Red means different things in different cultures

• The excerpt provides red as a concrete example of how color meanings shift across cultures.
• The same color—red—"means something very different across culture."
• A graphic in the excerpt (Figure 1: Meanings of the color red around the world) illustrates these variations.

⚠️ Unintended messages from color choices

The choices you make in colors for your graphics may communicate ideas you do not actually intend.

• This is the key risk: a writer selects a color for one reason (e.g., visual contrast, personal preference), but the audience interprets it through their cultural lens.
• Example: if red signals "danger" in one culture but "celebration" in another, a red bar in a chart could be misread.
• Don't confuse: this is not about whether the color is "correct"—it's about whether the color's cultural associations align with your intended message.

🎨 The principle extends beyond red

• The excerpt notes that "similar differences exist across cultures with other colors, as well."
• Red is used as an illustration, but the underlying principle applies broadly: be aware of how your design choices will be interpreted by your specific audience.
• This requires research or consultation when writing for audiences from different cultural backgrounds.

🛠️ Practical takeaway

🛠️ Awareness before design

• Before finalizing graphics, consider:
  • Who is the audience?
  • What cultural backgrounds might they have?
  • What associations might they bring to color choices?
• The excerpt does not provide a prescriptive list of "correct" colors; instead, it calls for awareness and intentionality in design decisions.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Graphics in technical reports must be strategically placed and accompanied by clear introductory and follow-up text to ensure readers understand both the content and implications of the visual information.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Placement principle: graphics should never stand alone—they need introductory sentences, clear labeling, and follow-up commentary.
• Five minimal requirements: introduce the graphic beforehand, name it for reference, ensure internal clarity, cite sources at the bottom, and provide interpretive follow-up text.
• Common confusion: simply inserting a graphic is not enough—readers need context before and interpretation after to understand what the visual means.
• Why it matters: proper placement and context transform a graphic from a standalone image into an integrated part of the report's argument.

📋 The five essential elements

📋 What every graphic needs

The excerpt provides a checklist of minimal considerations when integrating visuals into a report. Each element serves a specific purpose in helping readers process the information.

Minimal requirements for graphics: introduce the information in preceding text, name the visual for reference, ensure clarity within the graphic, provide source information at the bottom, and write follow-up text after the graphic.

🔤 Naming and labeling

• Give every visual a clear name, even if simple: "Table 1" or "Figure 1."
• Purpose: allows easy reference in the text and helps readers navigate the report.
• Example: a writer can say "as shown in Table 1" and readers immediately know where to look.

🔍 Internal clarity requirement

• The information within the graphic itself must be clear and easy to understand.
• This means appropriate labels, readable fonts, logical organization, and uncluttered design.
• Don't confuse: this is about the graphic's internal design, separate from the surrounding text context.

📝 Before and after: contextualizing graphics

📝 Introductory text (before the graphic)

• What to include: clear sentences in the paragraph preceding the visual that introduce the information appearing in the graphic.
• Additional element: this is also a good place to provide source material for the information in the graphic, if applicable.
• Purpose: prepares readers for what they are about to see and why it matters.
• Example: "The following table shows hardiness zones for four cities..." tells readers what to expect before they encounter the table.

💬 Follow-up text (after the graphic)

• What to include: interpretation or final comment about the implications of the information in the visual.
• This is not just repetition—it's about meaning and significance.
• Example: after showing a pie chart of vegetables grown, the writer might note "It is important to note that depending on the hardiness zone of the city, some vegetables may do better than others."
• Don't confuse: follow-up text is not a caption (which goes at the bottom of the graphic); it's interpretive commentary in the body text after the graphic.

📌 Source attribution

• Provide source information at the bottom of the graphic itself.
• This is separate from mentioning the source in the introductory text.
• Example: "Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016."

🎯 Integration principle

🎯 Graphics should not stand alone

The excerpt emphasizes that graphics must be woven into the report's narrative, not simply inserted without context.

The integration pattern:

1. Introduce what the graphic will show (before)
2. Present the named, clearly designed graphic with source citation
3. Interpret or comment on implications (after)

🔗 Why context matters

• Without introductory text, readers don't know what they're looking at or why.
• Without follow-up text, readers may miss the significance or correct interpretation.
• The graphic becomes part of the report's argument only when surrounded by explanatory text.
• Example: the excerpt notes that a writer "isn't simply inserting and leaving it on its own for readers to interpret"—active guidance is required.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective graphics in technical reports require introductory context, clear labeling, source attribution, and follow-up commentary to help readers interpret the visual information.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What makes a complete graphic: introduction in preceding text, a clear name/number, source information at the bottom, and follow-up interpretation.
• How to integrate visuals: don't insert graphics alone—surround them with explanatory sentences that provide context and implications.
• Common confusion: a graphic is not self-explanatory; readers need prefatory remarks and commentary, not just the visual itself.
• Multiple formats for the same data: the same information can be shown as a pie chart, bar chart, or table depending on what best serves the audience.
• Revision mindset: even published graphics may have strengths and weaknesses that require critical evaluation.

📋 Anatomy of a well-integrated graphic

🔤 Required elements

Every graphic in a technical report should include:

• Introductory sentences in the paragraph before the visual that provide context
• A name or number (e.g., "Table 1" or "Figure 1") for easy reference
• Source information at the bottom of the graphic
• Follow-up text after the graphic—interpretation or implications

🧩 Why each element matters

• The introduction prepares readers for what they will see and why it matters.
• The name/number allows writers and readers to refer to the graphic elsewhere in the document.
• Source attribution gives credibility and allows readers to verify or explore further.
• Follow-up commentary ties the visual back to the report's argument or purpose.

Don't confuse: A graphic is not a standalone element; it must be woven into the narrative flow of the report.

🌱 Example walkthrough: vegetable growing data

🥧 Pie chart example

The excerpt shows a pie chart about vegetables grown in Sisters, Central Oregon in 2015.

What the writer did well:

• Provided introductory sentences explaining the challenge of gardening in Sisters (varied temperatures, frost risk year-round)
• Named the visual ("Table 1: Vegetables grown in 2015")
• Listed the source ("Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016")
• Added follow-up remarks noting that success depends on hardiness zone and that the gardener protected tomatoes with a greenhouse or hoop house

📊 Bar chart alternative

The excerpt then presents the same vegetable data as a bar chart (Figure 1).

Purpose:

• To show readers "another way of visualizing the same information"
• Demonstrates that the same data can be presented in multiple formats

Key insight: Different visual formats (pie chart vs. bar chart) may serve different audiences or emphasize different aspects of the data.

📐 Example walkthrough: hardiness zone table

🗺️ Plant hardiness zones

The excerpt includes a table showing USDA hardiness zones for four Central Oregon cities (Sisters, Bend, Redmond, Tumalo).

What the table shows:

• Each city's hardiness zone (6a or 6b)
• Annual minimum winter temperature range in Fahrenheit

🧵 How the writer integrated the table

• Before the table: Explained what the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map is and why growers use it (to determine which plants will succeed in a location); noted that winter temperature affects both plant choice and growing season length
• After the table: Advised readers to check the hardiness number on plant labels before purchasing

Why this works:

• The introduction gives readers the background needed to understand the table's purpose
• The follow-up translates the data into actionable advice

🔍 Evaluating graphics for revision

🛠️ Critical review approach

The excerpt concludes by showing "examples of visuals that could use revision" and asks readers to:

• Note possible strengths and weaknesses
• Consider what advice to give the writer on improvement

🧠 What to look for

When evaluating graphics, consider:

• Are the required elements present (introduction, name, source, follow-up)?
• Is the information within the graphic clear and easy to understand?
• Does the visual fit the audience, subject matter, and purpose?
• Is the graphic discussed in nearby text, or is it inserted unexplained?

Revision mindset: Even published graphics are not perfect; developing the ability to critique and improve visuals is an essential technical writing skill.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Graphics in technical reports must be integrated thoughtfully with text, properly labeled and cited, and positioned to supplement—not replace—written explanations.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of graphics: supplement or clarify information in the body text, not stand alone.
• Integration requirement: always introduce graphics in preceding text and provide follow-up commentary; never insert a graphic unexplained.
• Formatting rules: use figure numbers and titles, fit within margins, intersperse with text (no more than one-third of a page), and place near relevant text.
• Citation obligation: cite all source material used to create graphics and any borrowed images, both in introductory text and at the bottom of the visual.
• Common confusion: graphics are not self-explanatory—readers need orientation through surrounding text to understand the graphic's meaning and relevance.

📝 Integration and Context

📝 Never leave graphics unexplained

Graphics must be discussed in nearby text preceding the graphic; orient readers to the graphic and explain its basic meaning.

• The excerpt emphasizes that you should "not just insert a graphic in your report unexplained."
• Introductory sentences before the graphic provide context and prepare the reader.
• Follow-up commentary after the graphic ties it back to the main discussion.
• Example: In the gardening example, the writer introduces the pie chart with context about vegetable growing challenges in Sisters, Oregon, then adds closing remarks about hardiness zones and protective measures.

🔗 How to provide context

The excerpt shows a three-part pattern:

1. Before: Explain why the graphic matters and what it will show
2. During: Present the properly labeled graphic
3. After: Add interpretation, caveats, or connections to broader points

Don't confuse: providing context is not the same as repeating all the data—the text should help readers understand why the graphic matters and how to interpret it.

🎨 Formatting and Placement

🎨 Visual presentation rules

Requirement	Guideline	Reason
Page layout	Intersperse graphics and text on same page	Graphics should not appear on pages by themselves
Size limit	No more than one-third of any page	Maintains balance between visual and written content
Margins	Fit within normal margins	Professional appearance and readability
Spacing	At least one blank line above and below	Visual separation from text

📍 Positioning graphics

• Place graphics "as near to the point in the text where they are relevant as is reasonable."
• If a graphic doesn't fit properly on one page: indicate it appears on the next page, place it at the top of the next page, and continue regular text on the preceding page.
• Don't leave half a page blank just to keep a graphic near associated text—practical layout takes priority over perfect proximity.

🏷️ Labels and Identification

🏷️ Required labeling elements

Every graphic needs:

• Figure numbers and titles: clear identification (e.g., "Table 1: Vegetables grown in 2015" or "Figure 1: Vegetables grown in 2015")
• Internal labels: illustration labels, axis labels, keys, and other identifying details within the graphic itself
• Source information: citation at the bottom of the visual

📊 Example from the excerpt

The hardiness zone table demonstrates complete labeling:

• Title: "Table 1: Hardiness Zones in Central Oregon"
• Column headers: "Central Oregon City," "Hardiness Zone," "Winter Temperature Range"
• Source citation: "United States Department of Agriculture. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. 2012. Web. 05 May 2016."

📚 Citation Requirements

📚 When to cite

The excerpt identifies two citation scenarios:

Scenario 1: Graphics you create from source material

• Cite in introductory sentences before the visual
• Include citation at the bottom of the visual if relevant
• Example: The pie chart created from an interview with Jane Doe includes "Source: Interview with Master Gardener, Jane Doe, 2 May 2016."

Scenario 2: Graphics created by others

• You may legally "trace, photocopy, scan, or extract subsets of data" from existing graphics
• You are obligated to accurately cite sources for graphics just as you cite borrowed words
• Failure to cite is unethical even if the borrowing is legal

⚖️ Legal vs ethical obligation

Don't confuse: the excerpt emphasizes that while borrowing graphics is "perfectly legal," accurate citation is still an obligation—legality does not eliminate the ethical requirement to credit sources.

✅ Audience and Purpose Alignment

✅ Appropriateness criteria

Make sure your graphics are appropriate to your audience, subject matter, and purpose.

• Graphics should supplement or clarify information, not just decorate the page.
• The choice of graphic type (pie chart vs bar graph vs table) should match what the audience needs to understand.
• Example: The excerpt shows the same vegetable data presented as both a pie chart and a bar graph, noting "It is provided to give you another way of visualizing the same information"—different audiences or purposes might benefit from different formats.

🎯 Function over decoration

• Graphics exist to "supplement or clarify information provided within the body of your report."
• They are tools for communication, not standalone elements.
• The surrounding text and the graphic work together to convey meaning more effectively than either could alone.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Ethical technical communication requires not only telling the truth but presenting information so that a reasonable audience can actually understand the truth and preventing harm according to a hierarchy of seriousness.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Everyday ethics vs. professional ethics: people use a sliding scale in daily life (white lies to spare feelings), but technical writing demands a higher standard.
• What ethical communication means: not just accuracy, but presenting truth so a reasonable audience knows the truth.
• Harm prevention hierarchy: some harms outweigh others (e.g., someone's life > financial damage to a company > personal irritation).
• Common confusion: telling the truth ≠ ethical communication; you must also ensure the audience can reasonably understand that truth.
• The public test: if your action became public and would lead to prison, job loss, or serious embarrassment, it is probably unethical.

🧩 Core concept: ethical communication is more than accuracy

🧩 What ethical behavior means in technical writing

Ethical technical communication involves not just telling the truth and providing accurate information, but telling the truth and providing information so that a reasonable audience knows the truth.

• It is not enough to include accurate data somewhere in a document.
• The way you present information affects whether the audience can actually understand the truth.
• Example: burying a crucial fact in the middle of a long paragraph deep in a document may be "accurate" but prevents the audience from knowing the truth.

🔍 Don't confuse accuracy with ethical presentation

• Accuracy: the information itself is correct.
• Ethical communication: the information is presented so a reasonable person can understand its importance and meaning.
• The excerpt emphasizes that ethical writing requires both.

⚖️ The sliding scale in everyday life vs. professional standards

⚖️ How people behave in daily situations

The excerpt describes how most people adjust their ethical behavior based on context:

• Trivial white lies: telling a friend her haircut looks good when you think it doesn't—preserves feelings, causes no harm.
• Context-dependent choices: you might not tell a stranger about trailing toilet paper but would tell a friend.
• Serious trade-offs: you might not die to save a stranger but would risk your life to save your children.

🚫 Why technical writing demands more

• In professional and technical contexts, the sliding scale is not acceptable.
• Technical writers must meet a higher standard because their work affects decisions, safety, and public trust.
• The excerpt implies that the everyday "sort of sliding scale" does not apply to ethical technical communication.

🛡️ Harm prevention and the hierarchy of seriousness

🛡️ Acting to prevent actual harm

Ethical behavior means you act to prevent harm, not just avoid lying.

• The excerpt states: "telling the truth and providing information so that a reasonable audience knows the truth" and "you act to prevent actual harm."
• You must weigh different kinds and degrees of harm.

📊 Hierarchy of harm (from the excerpt)

Higher priority (more serious)	Lower priority (less serious)
Someone's life	Financial damage to your company
Company's success	Your own irritation

• Example: if revealing a safety issue would cost your company money but save lives, the ethical choice is to reveal it.
• Don't confuse: "no illegal action" does not mean "ethical action." The excerpt warns that you might do something unethical without breaking the law.

🧪 The public test: a practical guideline

🧪 How to evaluate your action

The excerpt offers a simple test:

Ask yourself what would happen if your action (or non-action) became public. If you would go to prison, lose your friends, lose your job, or even just feel really embarrassed, the action is probably unethical.

• This test applies to both actions and non-actions (e.g., failing to disclose important information).
• The consequences listed range from legal (prison) to social (losing friends) to professional (losing your job) to personal (embarrassment).
• Example: if you manipulate data to make a product look safer and this became public, you would likely face serious consequences—this signals the action is unethical.

🔍 Why embarrassment matters

• Even if an action is legal and causes no immediate harm, if you would be embarrassed if it became public, it is a warning sign.
• The excerpt uses embarrassment as the minimum threshold: serious ethical violations would lead to worse outcomes (job loss, prison), but even minor unethical choices would cause embarrassment.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

How a writer positions and emphasizes information in a document directly affects whether readers understand its true importance and can make ethical decisions based on it.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What presentation means: where you place information (prominent vs buried) signals its importance to readers.
• The core ethical issue: hiding crucial information or over-emphasizing minor points misleads readers about what matters.
• Real consequences: poor information presentation can lead to catastrophic misunderstandings, even when the writer includes all the facts.
• Common confusion: including all the facts ≠ ethical communication; readers must also understand the relative weight of those facts.
• Target audience matters: technical facts must be presented so non-technical decision-makers understand whether something is good or bad.

📍 How placement shapes meaning

📍 Prominence signals importance

• Readers interpret the location of information as a signal of its significance.
• Burying crucial information deep in a long paragraph within a long document seriously de-emphasizes it.
• Placing a minor point in a prominent spot (e.g., first item in a bulleted list or in an executive summary) tells readers it is critical.

Don't confuse: Physical inclusion vs effective communication—just because a fact appears somewhere in the document doesn't mean readers will grasp its importance.

🎯 What readers assume

• Readers expect important information in prominent positions (beginnings, endings, summaries, headings).
• When writers violate this expectation, readers may miss life-or-death information even though it was technically "disclosed."

🚨 The Challenger memo case

🚨 What happened

The excerpt describes a memo report NASA engineers wrote about O ring seals on the space shuttle Challenger as a classic example of unethical technical writing.

O rings provide a seal.

The problem:

• Crucial information about the O ring problem was buried in a middle paragraph.
• Information approving the launch appeared in prominent beginning and ending positions.
• The audience—non-technical managers—mistakenly believed the O ring problem was inconsequential.
• The document's structure did not help them understand the problem could be fatal.

🔍 Why it went wrong

The excerpt offers three possible explanations:

Possibility	What it means
Poor writing	Engineers lacked communication skills
Audience neglect	Did not consider how non-technical managers would read it
Self-protection	Emphasized what was right to avoid looking bad

Context note: The O rings had worked fine for several launches, which may have influenced how engineers framed the risk.

💡 The lesson

The position of information prevented the audience from understanding that a technical problem could be fatal, even though the engineers included a full report with all the facts.

✅ What ethical presentation requires

✅ Beyond truthfulness

Ethical writing involves more than just being factually accurate:

• You must present information so your target audience understands the relative importance of different facts.
• Readers need to grasp whether a technical fact is a good thing or a bad thing.

✅ Audience understanding

• Technical writers must consider how non-technical decision-makers will interpret the document structure.
• The goal is not just disclosure but comprehension of significance.

Example: If your audience is managers who will decide whether to proceed, they need to immediately recognize which technical issues are critical risks versus routine concerns.

Key principle: Ethical presentation means structuring information so a reasonable audience knows the truth and can weigh it appropriately.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Technical writers face ethical challenges not only in telling the truth but in presenting information so that audiences understand its relative importance and can make informed decisions, even when that information conflicts with project goals or organizational interests.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core ethical obligation: presenting information so a reasonable audience knows the truth and understands the relative importance of facts, not just providing accurate data.
• Common violations are often unintentional: most ethics issues arise from unconscious bias, poor presentation choices, or failure to consider audience needs rather than deliberate deception.
• Visual presentation matters: how data appears in charts and graphs can mislead readers even when the underlying numbers are accurate.
• Research breadth requirement: relying on limited sources or suppressing conflicting evidence creates bias, even if unintentional.
• Common confusion: accuracy vs. ethical presentation—information can be technically true but unethically presented through placement, emphasis, or visual manipulation.

🔍 Core ethical dilemmas in research

📊 When research contradicts project goals

• A writer may discover data that conflicts with what their employer or client wants to achieve.
• Example: Research shows that bringing in an outside expert would create the greatest change for employee morale problems, but the cost is prohibitive for the small company.
• The ethical tension: should the writer omit cost information to encourage the employer to pursue the best solution, or include it even though it makes the solution infeasible?
• This is not about lying but about what to include when complete information undermines the project's viability.

🚫 Suppressing relevant information

• Writers may be tempted to leave out evidence that contradicts their employer's or client's position.
• Example: A parents' group wants to change school vaccination policy. The writer finds sources supporting the group's goal but also discovers medical evidence showing vaccines do more good than harm in society.
• The ethical question: Does employment obligation override the responsibility to present all relevant research, even evidence that might "sabotage the group's goal"?
• Don't confuse: selective research (choosing which sources to consult) vs. suppressive presentation (hiding sources you already found).

📚 Limited source diversity

Thorough research requires that a writer integrates information from a variety of reliable sources demonstrating examination of the topic from as many angles as possible.

• Using only a few sources or a single database creates potential bias.
• Sources should include scholarly and professional research from multiple origins, not just one expert or database.
• Example: Writing a report on the Central Oregon real estate market using data from only one broker's office risks appearing biased, even if that office has access to broader market data.
• Collecting information from multiple brokers demonstrates thorough and unbiased research.

📈 Visual information ethics

🥧 Pie chart manipulation

The excerpt presents two identical datasets shown in different pie chart orientations:

Presentation	What it shows	Ethical issue
Misleading version	Green slice (Item C) appears larger than blue slice (Item A)	Perspective makes one donation amount look bigger
Accurate version	Same data, different orientation reveals Item C is less than half of Item A	Proper orientation shows true proportions

• A simple change in perspective can change the impact of an image.
• Example: A city council candidate seeing the misleading chart might think she received more donations than another candidate when the opposite is true.

📊 Bar graph scale manipulation

The excerpt contrasts two bar graphs with identical data:

Graph type	Vertical axis range	Visual impression	Reality
Misleading	9100 to 9800 (narrow range)	Dramatically increased sales over five years	Sales relatively stable
Complete picture	0 to 1200 (full range)	Stable sales figures	Accurate representation

• The misleading graph shows "only a narrow range of numbers in a limited perspective."
• Key principle: Presenting data in graphical form requires providing appropriate context and perspective.
• The numbers themselves are accurate in both graphs, but the presentation distorts understanding.

🎯 Why visual ethics matter

• Visuals communicate data and information efficiently, often illustrating key facts, statistics, or information from the report text.
• They provide data in a concentrated form.
• Writers "have to be careful not to misrepresent or misreport the complete picture" when presenting information visually.

⚠️ Unintentional ethics violations

🧠 The accidental bias problem

Most ethics violations in technical writing are probably unintentional, but they are still ethics violations.

• Directly lying is unlikely to be accidental.
• Even deliberate lies may involve the writer persuading themselves that the lie achieved some "greater good" and was therefore necessary.
• More common: The person designing the information sees it as evidence for what they understand as true and honestly does not recognize the bias in their presentation.

🔎 Where bias hides

A technical writer must consciously identify their biases and check whether bias has influenced any presentation:

• Charts and graphs
• Discussions of evidence
• Source use
• Placement of crucial information (where decision-makers will recognize its importance)

📝 The confirmation bias trap

• Scholarly research is theoretically intended to find evidence that ideas are valid, important, partial, trivial, or wrong.
• In practice, most people are primarily looking for support: "Hey, I have this great new idea... Now I just need some evidence to prove I am right!"
• Warning sign: If you can easily find 94 high-quality sources that confirm you are correct, consider whether your idea is worth developing as "new."
• Often the underlying principle is already well-documented (maybe even common knowledge for your audience).

🎯 Appropriate use of established principles

• The point should be to use an underlying principle to propose a specific application.
• Using a large section of your report to prove an already established principle implies you are saying something new about the principle—which is not true.
• Better approach: Brief mention of established research ("Research conducted at major research universities over the last ten years... establishes that...") then apply that principle to your specific task or proposal.
• This accurately reflects the status of the principle without misrepresenting your contribution.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Ethical source documentation requires clearly distinguishing your own ideas from borrowed material and providing complete, accurate citation information so readers can verify and locate every source you used.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core ethical obligation: you must clearly separate your ideas from borrowed material and use sources primarily as evidence for your own directly stated ideas.
• What counts as unethical: misleading readers about sources (incomplete citations, falsifying source nature, suppressing how you used material, or listing sources you didn't actually use).
• Common confusion: if you cannot separate your ideas from sources or feel you must document "the whole paper," you are likely blending improperly and violating fair use.
• Documentation completeness: sources must appear both in-text (where you use them) and in a final reference list; omitting either is misleading.
• Why it matters for credibility: proper documentation builds your professional reputation and allows readers to verify your evidence.

📋 What ethical documentation requires

📋 Two-part citation system

• Every source must be documented twice:
  1. In-text: where you actually borrow the material.
  2. End list: in a Works Cited, Works, or References section (terms vary by documentation system).
• Including an item only in the end list suggests you used it, but without in-text citation you mislead readers about what is yours versus what is borrowed.
• Don't confuse: listing a source at the end is not enough; readers need to see exactly where in your report you relied on that source.

🔍 Making sources identifiable

Documenting in a way that misleads readers about the source or makes identifying it difficult is unethical.

Unethical practices include:

• Using only a URL without full context.
• Listing an article title without the journal name.
• Omitting page numbers to make a brief note look like a full article.
• Suppressing information about how you used a source (e.g., not clarifying that a graph in your report was already a graph in the source, rather than one you created from source data).

Example: If you present a chart and don't indicate it came pre-made from your source, readers may assume you analyzed raw data yourself—this misrepresents your work.

🧩 The core principle: separation of ideas

🧩 Your ideas vs. borrowed material

The excerpt emphasizes two must-dos:

• Clearly distinguish between your ideas and borrowed material.
• Use borrowed material primarily as evidence for your own, directly stated ideas.

You cannot ethically blend your ideas together with source material.

• If you mix your analysis with source content without clear boundaries, readers cannot tell what is yours and what is borrowed.
• Don't confuse: "your ideas" includes your analysis or application of borrowed materials, not just brand-new concepts.

⚠️ The "whole paper" warning

• Students sometimes argue they cannot separate ideas from sources because "the whole paper would need documentation."
• If that is true, the paper is not making fair use of sources.
• This signals you are over-relying on sources instead of presenting your own argument supported by evidence.
• Any time you find you cannot apply documentation principles, consider whether you are using sources unethically.

🚫 Specific unethical practices

🚫 Falsifying or suppressing source information

Unethical practice	What it means	Why it's misleading
Listing unused sources	Including a source in the end list that you didn't actually cite in the text	Suggests thoroughness you didn't demonstrate
Incomplete citations	Using only a URL or omitting journal/page info	Makes verification difficult or impossible
Falsifying source nature	Omitting page count to make a note look like a full article	Misrepresents the weight of your evidence
Hiding graphical reuse	Not clarifying a graph was pre-made in the source	Implies you did original data visualization

🔄 Missing the point of source use

The excerpt states that many documentation problems arise because writers misunderstand the purpose of sources:

• Sources are evidence for your own ideas, not a substitute for them.
• Your job is to state your ideas directly, then support them with documented borrowed material.
• If you cannot show what is yours versus what is borrowed, you have likely blended improperly.

Example: Instead of weaving together paragraphs where your voice and the source's voice are indistinguishable, state your claim clearly, then cite the source that supports it.

🏛️ Building professional credibility

🏛️ Why documentation matters beyond academia

Technical and professional writing can be used to evaluate your job performance and can have implications a writer may or may not have considered.

• Unlike personal or academic writing, professional writing affects your workplace reputation.
• Whether writing for colleagues, vendors, or customers, you want to build a solid, well-earned favorable reputation.
• Your goal: maintain and enhance your credibility and that of your organization at all times.

🔎 Evaluating source credibility

Before you document a source, ensure it is credible:

• Are the sources popular or scholarly? Are they peer-reviewed by experts?
• Are methods and arguments based on solid reasoning and sound evidence?
• Is the author identifiable with appropriate credentials?
• Be cautious with sources not reviewed by peers or editors, or where information seems misleading, biased, or false.

Why this matters: Being a wise information consumer in your research builds your own reputation as an honest, ethical writer.

✅ How credibility is established

Credibility comes from multiple practices:

• Using appropriate professional language.
• Citing highly respected sources.
• Providing reliable evidence.
• Using sound logic.
• Quoting others' work is fine, provided you credit the source fully enough that readers can find it on their own.

Don't confuse: Credibility is not just about having sources; it's about transparent, complete, and accurate documentation that allows verification.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Ethical technical and professional writing requires credible sourcing, transparent documentation, and honest representation of both your own ideas and borrowed material to build and maintain your professional reputation.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why ethics matter in professional writing: your writing evaluates job performance and affects your reputation and your organization's credibility.
• What makes a source credible: peer review, respected authorship, solid reasoning, sound evidence, and appropriate credentials.
• How to document ethically: clearly distinguish your ideas from borrowed material, cite sources fully in both text and reference lists, and never mislead readers about what you used or how you used it.
• Common confusion: blending your ideas with source material makes proper documentation impossible—if you cannot separate them, you are likely using sources unethically.
• The "fair use" test: if you feel you must document the whole paper, you are not making fair use of sources; borrowed material should serve as evidence for your own directly stated ideas.

📊 Credibility and source evaluation

📊 Why credibility matters in professional writing

• Technical and professional writing is different from personal or academic writing: it evaluates your job performance and has real-world implications.
• Your writing builds your reputation and your organization's reputation.
• Credibility is not automatic; it must be earned and maintained at all times.

🔍 How to establish credibility

Credibility can be built through:

• Using appropriate professional language
• Citing highly respected sources
• Providing reliable evidence
• Using sound logic

✅ Evaluating source quality

When you start research, always question the credibility of information:

Question to ask	What to look for
Popular or scholarly?	Scholarly sources are more credible
Peer reviewed?	Experts in the field should have reviewed it
Sound methods and arguments?	Based on solid reasoning and sound evidence
Identifiable author with credentials?	Author should be named and qualified

Be cautious about: sources not reviewed by peers or editors, or information that seems misleading, biased, or false.

Why it matters: being a wise information consumer in your own reading and research builds your reputation as an honest, ethical writer.

📝 Ethical documentation practices

📝 The two-part documentation requirement

You must document sources in two places:

1. In the text where you use the material (citation)
2. In a Works Cited, Works, or References list at the end

The different terms (Works Cited, Works, References) reflect different documentation systems, not random preference.

⚠️ What counts as misleading documentation

Including a source only in the end list without citing it in the text suggests you used it when you may not have, or fails to clarify what is yours versus what is borrowed.

Making sources hard to identify is also unethical:

• Using just a URL without full information
• Using an article title without identifying the journal
• Omitting page numbers to make a brief note seem like a full article

🖼️ Documenting graphical information

You must make clear whether:

• A graph in your report was already a graph in your source, or
• A graph you created based on information in the source

Don't suppress information about how you used a source.

🧩 The core principle: separation of ideas

🧩 What you must do

Two fundamental requirements:

1. Clearly distinguish between your ideas and borrowed material
2. Use borrowed material primarily as evidence for your own, directly stated ideas

🚫 What you must not do

You cannot ethically blend your ideas together with source material.

• If you blend source material with your ideas (including your analysis or application of borrowed materials), showing exactly what is borrowed versus what is yours becomes impossible.
• Any time you find you cannot apply documentation principles, consider whether you are using the source(s) unethically.

💡 The "whole paper" argument

Students often argue they cannot separate their ideas from borrowed ideas because they would then have to document the whole paper.

If that is true: the paper is most certainly not making "fair use" of the sources.

Example: If every sentence needs a citation because everything comes from sources, you have not contributed your own analysis or argument—you have only compiled others' work.

🎯 Practical benefits of ethical sourcing

🎯 Building confidence and credibility

• Quoting is fine provided you credit the source fully enough that readers can find it on their own.
• Giving credit where credit is due will build your credibility and enhance your document.
• When your writing is authentically yours, your audience will catch your enthusiasm, and you will feel more confident in the material you produce.

🛡️ Avoiding negative consequences

• If you fail to take careful notes or a sentence later fails to get accurate attribution, it can have a negative impact on you and your organization.
• Best practice: when you copy and paste or make a note of an element you want to incorporate, in the same moment note the source in a complete enough form to find it again.

🤝 The business analogy

Just as you have a responsibility in business to be honest in selling your product or service and avoid cheating your customers, so you have a responsibility in business writing to be honest in presenting your idea, and the ideas of others, and to avoid cheating your readers with plagiarized material.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Technical writers must follow multiple codes of ethics—from their professional associations, their employers, and the specific fields they write about—to ensure their work meets the ethical standards expected in their professional context.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Multiple ethics codes apply: technical writers must be aware of their professional association's code, their organization's corporate code, and the code of the field they are writing about.
• Professional associations have published codes: organizations like the Society of Technical Communicators publish their ethical principles online for members to follow.
• Field-specific ethics matter: when writing for a particular profession (e.g., physical therapy), you must understand and work within that field's ethical principles.
• Common confusion: ethics are not just about your own profession—if you write for another field, you must also follow their ethical standards, not just your own.
• Why it matters: understanding and following these codes is expected of you as a professional and ensures your work meets the standards of all stakeholders involved.

🏢 Sources of ethical obligations

🏢 Corporate codes of ethics

• Many organizations and employers have their own corporate code of ethics.
• These codes set the ethical standards for employees within that organization.
• As a technical writer employed by an organization, you are expected to follow their specific ethical guidelines.

🤝 Professional association codes

• Professional associations such as the Society of Technical Communicators maintain codes of ethics for their members.
• These codes are typically published online and accessible to members.
• Example: The Society of Technical Communicators publishes their ethical principles at their website.
• When you join a professional association, you need to be aware of and follow their published codes.

📝 Writing for specific fields

📝 Field-specific ethical principles

When you are a technical writer researching and writing a report within a specific professional field, you need to be aware of that field's codes of ethics.

• Your ethical obligations extend beyond your own profession to the field you are writing about.
• You must work within the ethical principles of the field you are researching and writing for.
• Example: If you are writing a report for physical therapists on knee surgery rehabilitation techniques, you should be aware of the code of ethics for physical therapists and ensure your research and writing align with those principles.

🔍 How to distinguish your ethics from field ethics

• Your professional ethics: the code from your technical writing association or your employer.
• Field ethics: the code from the profession or discipline you are writing about (e.g., physical therapy, engineering, medicine).
• Don't confuse: both sets of ethics apply simultaneously—you must satisfy both your own professional standards and the standards of the field you are writing for.

🎯 Taking action

🎯 What to do as a professional

• Look for the codes of ethics in your own discipline.
• Begin to read and understand what will be expected of you as a professional in your field.
• Familiarize yourself with these codes before you need to apply them in your work.
• This preparation ensures you can work confidently within the ethical boundaries of your profession and any field you write about.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The cover letter accompanies a technical report to explain the context of the report's creation, confirm delivery of the agreed-upon work, and invite the recipient to respond with questions or concerns.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose: The cover letter is a communication from the report writer to the recipient who requested (and may be paying for) the report.
• What it contains: Information about the report that does not belong in the report itself—the events that brought the report about and confirmation of delivery.
• Standard structure: Three paragraphs covering report identification, purpose and overview, and an invitation for feedback.
• Format choice: Use business-letter format for external reports; use memorandum format for internal reports.
• Common confusion: The cover letter is not part of the report content—it explains the context and delivery, not the findings.

📝 What the cover letter does

📝 Core function

The cover letter is a communication from you—the report writer—to the recipient, the person who requested the report and who may even be paying you for your expert consultation.

• It essentially says: "Here is the report that we agreed I'd complete by such-and-such a date. Briefly, it contains this and that, but does not cover this or that. Let me know if it meets your needs."
• It explains the context—the events that brought the report about.
• It contains information about the report that does not belong in the report itself.

📎 Placement options

• The cover letter is either attached to the outside of the report with a paper clip or bound within the report.
• This flexibility allows the writer to choose based on organizational preferences or delivery method.

🏗️ Standard structure

🏗️ Three-paragraph organization

The cover letter follows a consistent three-paragraph pattern:

Paragraph	Content	Purpose
First	Cites the name of the report (in italics) and mentions the date of the agreement to write the report	Identifies the specific deliverable and confirms the timeline
Middle	Focuses on the purpose of the report and gives a brief overview of the report's contents	Orients the reader to what the report covers
Final	Encourages the reader to get in touch if there are questions, comments, or concerns; closes with a gesture of good will, expressing hope that the reader finds the report satisfactory	Invites feedback and maintains professional relationship

✏️ Possible modifications

• You may need to modify the contents of the letter (or memo) for specific situations.
• Example: You might want to add another paragraph listing questions you'd like readers to consider as they review the report.
• The structure is a guideline, not a rigid requirement.

📋 Format requirements

📋 Business letter vs. memorandum

• For external reports: Use standard business-letter format.
• For internal reports: Use memorandum format instead.
• Important: In either case, the contents and organization remain the same—only the format changes.

📋 Why format matters

• The format signals the relationship between writer and recipient (external client vs. internal colleague).
• Standard formats help recipients quickly recognize the document type and know how to process it.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A cover page labels the report with essential identifying information so it is not anonymous and can be properly tracked and recognized.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose: the cover page prevents a report from being anonymous and ignored by providing a clear label.
• What to include: report title, author name, organization name, tracking number, and date.
• How to create it: use word-processing software to design a standard page with a graphic box around the label information.
• Common confusion: cover page vs. title page—the cover page is the outermost label; other elements like descriptive abstracts go on the title page, not the cover page.
• Flexibility: no universal standard exists, but organizations typically have their own requirements.

📋 What goes on a cover page

📋 Essential elements

The excerpt lists five pieces of information that belong on a cover page:

• Report title
• Your name (the author)
• Your organization's name
• A report tracking number
• A date

Not much goes on the label: the report title, your name, your organization's name, a report tracking number, and a date.

• These elements are minimal but sufficient to identify and track the document.
• Example: An organization submits a consulting report; the cover page shows the report title, the consultant's name, the consulting firm, a project number, and the completion date.

🎨 Design approach

• Use word-processing software to create the page.
• Place the label information inside a graphic box on a standard page.
• The excerpt emphasizes simplicity: "Not much goes on the label."

🏢 Standards and flexibility

🏢 No universal standard

• The excerpt explicitly states there are "no standard requirements for the label."
• However, individual companies or organizations should have their own internal requirements.
• Don't confuse: the lack of a universal standard does not mean "anything goes"—you must adapt to your organization's guidelines.

🔍 Why it matters

Without a label, a report is anonymous; it gets ignored.

• The cover page is described as "a step that some report writers forget."
• The consequence of omitting it is clear: the report becomes anonymous and may be overlooked.
• The cover page serves as the first point of identification and professionalism.

🖼️ Visual reference

🖼️ Example provided

The excerpt mentions that "An example of a report label is shown below," indicating that a visual illustration accompanies the text to demonstrate proper formatting.

• The example shows both a transmittal letter and report cover with the cover label.
• This visual aid helps writers understand the practical application of the guidelines.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Technical reports typically include abstracts or executive summaries that condense the report's content in different ways, allowing readers to quickly grasp key information without reading the entire document.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Two main types: descriptive abstracts overview purpose and contents; executive summaries extract key facts and conclusions.
• Length guidelines: executive summaries should be one-tenth to one-twentieth the length of 10–50 page reports; over 50 pages, limit to two pages maximum.
• Placement differences: descriptive abstracts traditionally go on the title page; executive summaries appear as separate pages.
• Common confusion: repetition across transmittal letter, introduction, and executive summary is intentional—readers skip around reports rather than reading linearly.
• Core purpose: provide quick-read versions so busy readers can extract essential information regardless of where they enter the report.

📝 Types of abstracts

📋 Descriptive abstract

Descriptive abstract: provides an overview of the purpose and contents of the report.

• Focuses on what the report covers rather than the actual findings or conclusions.
• Traditional placement: bottom of the title page (not the cover page).
• Think of it as a preview or roadmap of the report's structure.
• Example: An organization writes a descriptive abstract that lists the topics investigated and the methods used, without stating the results.

📊 Executive summary

Executive summary: summarizes the key facts and conclusions contained in the report.

• Extracts the most important information—imagine highlighting key sentences throughout the report and compiling them on one page.
• Must be edited for readability, not just a list of disconnected sentences.
• Designed to be read quickly by decision-makers who may not have time for the full report.
• Example: A reader can understand the main findings, recommendations, and conclusions by reading only the executive summary.

📏 Length and scope guidelines

📐 Sizing rules

Report length	Executive summary length
10–50 pages	One-tenth to one-twentieth of report length
Over 50 pages	Maximum two pages

• The goal is brevity while capturing essential information.
• Longer reports need stricter limits to maintain the "quick-read" function.
• Don't confuse: the executive summary is not a chapter-by-chapter synopsis; it's a distillation of the most critical content.

⚡ The quick-read principle

• Readers should be able to understand the report's main points without reading the full document.
• The summary serves busy executives or stakeholders who need decisions-ready information.
• If someone reads only the executive summary, they should grasp what was studied, what was found, and what it means.

🔄 Why repetition is intentional

🎯 Non-linear reading patterns

• Readers don't start at page one and read straight through to the end.
• Common behavior: scan the table of contents, skim the executive summary, read one or two body sections carefully, skip the rest.
• Reports are designed with duplication across transmittal letter, introduction, and executive summary to ensure important information is seen.

🔁 Strategic redundancy

• Each component serves different entry points into the report.
• Don't confuse: this is not poor editing—it's intentional design for accessibility.
• The repetition ensures that no matter where a reader "dips into" the report, they encounter the key messages.
• Example: A decision-maker might read only the transmittal letter and executive summary before a meeting; a technical specialist might skip directly to a specific body section; both need to understand the core findings.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The table of contents (TOC) is a navigational tool that shows readers what topics are covered, how they are organized, and where to find them, enabling quick access to information without reading the entire report.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What the TOC shows: topics covered, subtopics, and page numbers where sections start.
• Design decisions: levels of headings to include, indentation/spacing/capitalization, and vertical spacing for readability.
• Key formatting rule: use alignment and consistent capitalization to create a clean, professional appearance.
• Common confusion: TOC wording must match the actual headings in the text—changes during revision must be reflected in both places.
• Why it matters: the TOC provides an at-a-glance way to find information quickly, especially in longer reports.

📋 What the TOC displays

📋 Core function

Table of contents (TOC): a section that shows readers what topics are covered in the report, how those topics are discussed (the subtopics), and on which page numbers those sections and subsections start.

• The TOC is not a summary of content; it is a navigation map.
• Readers use it to skip around rather than reading page by page.
• It supports non-linear reading: readers may scan the TOC, skim the executive summary, then read only one or two sections from the body.

🎯 Purpose in longer reports

• In reports over fifty pages, the TOC prevents readers from getting lost.
• It complements other front matter (executive summary, introduction) by providing structural orientation.
• The excerpt notes that reports are designed with some duplication so important information is visible no matter where readers enter the document.

🎨 Design decisions

📏 Levels of headings to include

• For longer reports: consider including only the top two levels of headings.
• Why: keeps the TOC from becoming long and unwieldy.
• The goal is an at-a-glance tool, not an exhaustive outline.

🔤 Indentation, spacing, and capitalization

The excerpt describes a three-level system:

Level	Capitalization	Alignment
Main chapters/sections	All caps	Items aligned with each other
First-level headings	Initial caps on each main word	Items aligned with each other
Lower-level sections	Initial caps on first word only	Items aligned with each other

• Page numbers: right-aligned with each other (though not visible in the illustration mentioned).
• Indentation: each level is visually distinct through consistent indentation.

📐 Vertical spacing

• First-level sections have extra space above and below.
• Why: increases readability by visually grouping related subsections.

🛠️ Production tips

🛠️ Automatic vs manual creation

• Automatic TOC creator: helps produce a clean, professional document.
• Manual creation: learn to use dot leader tabs to line up page numbers correctly.
• Both methods require attention to alignment and consistency.

⚠️ Keeping TOC and text synchronized

• Critical rule: the words in the TOC must match the headings in the text exactly.
• Common mistake: changing headings during writing and revision but forgetting to update the TOC.
• How to avoid: check the TOC after every revision pass where headings change.

Example: If a heading in the body changes from "Cost Analysis" to "Budget Breakdown," the TOC entry must also change to "Budget Breakdown."

🔍 Don't confuse: TOC vs executive summary

• The TOC lists topics and page numbers (structure).
• The executive summary summarizes key facts and conclusions (content).
• Both appear in the front matter, but they serve different purposes: navigation vs comprehension.

📍 Placement and context

📍 Where the TOC appears

• The excerpt mentions "Table of contents (which comes first) then the executive summary."
• The TOC is part of the front matter, before the main body.
• It may be followed by a list of figures and tables, then the introduction.

📍 Relationship to other front matter

• The excerpt notes that the executive summary, introduction, and transmittal letter may seem repetitive.
• Why duplication exists: readers skip around, so important information must appear in multiple places.
• The TOC supports this non-linear reading pattern by making it easy to jump to any section.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A list of figures and tables helps readers quickly locate visual elements in longer reports and should be formatted with similar design principles to the table of contents.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• When to create one: documents with more than two figures or tables should have a separate list.
• What counts as what: figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts; tables are rows and columns of words and numbers.
• Common confusion: tables are not considered figures—they are distinct categories that may need separate lists or combined identification.
• Design principle: the list of figures and tables follows many of the same design considerations as the table of contents.
• Placement options: for reports with many of each, create separate lists; if both fit on one page, they can be combined under a single heading.

📋 When and why to create this list

📋 The threshold rule

• Create a separate list of figures and tables when your document has more than two figures or tables.
• This is a practical guideline: shorter documents don't need the extra navigation aid.

🎯 Purpose for readers

• Readers use the list to quickly find the illustrations, diagrams, tables, and charts in your report.
• It functions as a navigation tool, similar to how a table of contents helps locate sections.

🔍 Understanding figures vs. tables

🖼️ What counts as a figure

Figures are illustrations, drawings, photographs, graphs, and charts.

• These are visual representations that are not structured as rows and columns.
• Example: a diagram showing a process flow, a photograph of equipment, or a bar chart would all be figures.

📊 What counts as a table

Tables are rows and columns of words and numbers; they are not considered figures.

• The key distinction is the row-and-column structure.
• Don't confuse: even if a table contains visual elements or is visually formatted, it remains a table, not a figure.

🗂️ How to organize the lists

🗂️ Separate lists for longer reports

• For reports containing dozens of figures and tables each, create separate lists.
• This prevents either list from becoming too long and unwieldy.

🔗 Combined list option

• You can combine the two lists under the heading "List of Figures and Tables."
• When combining, identify each item as either "figure" or "table" so readers know what type of visual element they're looking for.
• If both lists fit on the same page, putting them together is acceptable.

📄 Alternative heading

• If your document contains no tables, change the heading to simply "List of Figures."
• Adjust the heading to accurately reflect what the document actually contains.

🎨 Design considerations

🎨 Similarity to table of contents

• The list of figures and tables follows many of the same design considerations as the table of contents.
• This creates visual consistency throughout the front matter of the report.
• The excerpt implies similar formatting principles apply (though specific formatting details are not provided in this section).

📍 Placement in the document

• The list of figures and tables is positioned in the front matter.
• It appears after the table of contents and before the introduction.
• This placement follows the logical flow: overview of sections → overview of visuals → main content.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The introduction of a technical report prepares the reader to understand the main body by providing essential context and framing.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of the introduction: to prepare the reader for the main body of the report, not to summarize conclusions.
• Essential element: every report must include an introduction; it is a required component.
• Placement: the introduction follows the list of figures and tables in the report structure.
• Common confusion: the introduction is not the same as the body—it sets up the body rather than delivering the main content.

📋 What the introduction does

🎯 Core purpose

The introduction prepares the reader to read the main body of the report.

• The introduction is not a summary or conclusion; it is a preparation step.
• It provides context, background, or framing so the reader can understand what follows.
• Think of it as a bridge: it connects the front matter (title, lists) to the substantive content.

📍 Where it fits

• The introduction comes after the list of figures and tables.
• It sits before the body of the report (the main text sections).
• If there are no tables, the preceding section is titled "List of Figures" instead of "List of Figures and Tables."

🔍 What the introduction is not

❌ Don't confuse with the body

• The body is the main text—the sections between the introduction and conclusion.
• The introduction only sets the stage; it does not contain the detailed analysis, findings, or discussion.
• Example: if a report analyzes three design options, the introduction explains why the analysis is needed and what the report will cover; the body presents the actual comparison and data.

❌ Don't confuse with the conclusion

• The introduction prepares; the conclusion wraps up.
• The introduction does not state findings or recommendations—those belong later in the report.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The body of a technical report—the main text between introduction and conclusion—must use headings, lists, and graphics strategically to organize content, guide readers, and maintain professionalism.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What the body contains: all main text sections between the introduction and conclusion, organized by headings and subtopics.
• Why headings matter: they alert readers to upcoming topics, help navigation, break up long text, and keep writers organized.
• How to format headings: make them self-explanatory, avoid stacked headings, avoid pronoun references, and prevent widowed headings.
• Common confusion: headings are not lead-ins to lists or figure titles—they mark off topics and subtopics within the report structure.
• Supporting elements: lists (bulleted/numbered), graphics (drawings, diagrams, tables, charts), conclusions, appendixes, and proper documentation of sources all belong in or follow the body.

📝 Headings in the body

📝 What headings do

Headings: the titles and subtitles within the actual text that mark off different topics and subtopics covered in the report.

• Headings are like outline parts pasted into the document pages.
• They serve readers by:
  • Alerting them to upcoming topics and subtopics
  • Helping them navigate long reports and skip uninterested sections
  • Breaking up long stretches of straight text
• They serve writers by keeping them organized and focused on the topic.
• Best practice: visualize headings before starting the rough draft and plug them in as you write, rather than adding them afterward.

✅ Heading guidelines

Guideline	What to do	Why
Self-explanatory phrasing	Use "Physics of Fiber Optics" instead of "Background" or "Technical Information"	Readers know exactly what the section covers
Indicate topic range	If covering design and operation, don't use "Pressurized Water Reactor Design" alone	Avoids incomplete and misleading headings
Avoid stacked headings	Don't place two consecutive headings without intervening text	Prevents disorientation
Avoid pronoun reference	Don't follow a heading "Torque" with "This is a physics principle…"	Maintains clarity
Omit articles when possible	Use "Pressurized Water Reactors" instead of "The Pressurized Water Reactor"	Cleaner, more concise
Don't use as lead-ins or figure titles	Headings mark topics, not introduce lists or label figures	Preserves their structural role
Avoid widowed headings	Keep at least two lines of body text with the heading or force it to start a new page	Prevents heading at bottom of page with text on next page

Don't confuse: Headings vs. list lead-ins—headings mark off sections of the report; list lead-ins introduce specific enumerated items within a section.

🎨 Formatting headings with styles

• Manually formatting each heading is repetitive work.
• Software like Microsoft Word and OpenOffice Writer provide styles (Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, etc.) that save time.
• You can design your own custom styles for headings to match your report's requirements.
• Example: In a technical writing course, ask your instructor if decimal-numbering style for headings is required.

📋 Lists in the body

📋 Purpose of lists

• Lists help by:
  • Emphasizing key points
  • Making information easier to follow
  • Breaking up solid walls of text
• Always introduce the list so readers understand its purpose and context.
• Whenever practical, provide a follow-up comment after the list.
• Example: "The tips above provide a practical guide to formatting lists" (follow-up text that helps readers understand context).

✅ List formatting guidelines

When to use lists:

• To highlight or emphasize text
• To enumerate sequential items

How to format lists:

• Use a lead-in to introduce list items and indicate the meaning or purpose (punctuate with a colon)
• Use consistent spacing, indentation, punctuation, and caps style for all lists in a document
• Make list items parallel in phrasing
• Make sure each item reads grammatically with the lead-in
• Avoid using headings as lead-ins for lists
• Avoid overusing lists; too many destroy their effectiveness
• Use similar types of lists consistently in similar text in the same document

Don't confuse: Headings as lead-ins vs. proper list lead-ins—headings should not introduce lists; use separate introductory sentences with colons instead.

🖼️ Graphics and supporting elements

🖼️ Graphics and figure titles

• In technical reports, you likely need drawings, diagrams, tables, and charts.
• These elements:
  • Convey certain kinds of information more efficiently than text
  • Give the report an added look of professionalism and authority
• You don't need to be a professional graphic artist to include them.
• The excerpt refers to a separate chapter on "Creating and Using Visuals" for strategies and principles.

📄 Conclusions

• Most reports need a final section.
• Key point: A conclusion does not necessarily just summarize a report.
• Instead, use the conclusion to explain the most significant findings you made in relation to your report topic.

📎 Appendixes

Appendixes: extra sections following the conclusion that contain material that does not comfortably fit in the main part of the report but cannot be left out altogether.

What goes in appendixes:

• Large tables of data
• Big chunks of sample code
• Fold-out maps
• Background that is too basic or too advanced for the body of the report
• Large illustrations that just do not fit in the body of the report

When to use appendixes:

• Anything you feel is too large for the main part of the report
• Anything you think would be distracting and interrupt the flow of the report

Formatting: Each appendix is given a letter (A, B, C, and so on).

📚 Documentation and page numbering

📚 Information sources

Documentation: citing borrowed information to establish, maintain, and protect your credibility in the profession.

What must be documented:

• You must cite borrowed information regardless of the shape or form in which you present it
• Whether you directly quote it, paraphrase it, or summarize it—it's still borrowed information
• Whether it comes from a book, article, diagram, table, web page, product brochure, or an expert you interview in person—it's still borrowed information

Documentation systems:

• Systems vary according to professionals and fields
• For a technical writing class in college, you may use MLA or APA style
• Engineers use the IEEE system (examples shown throughout the chapter)
• Another commonly used system is provided by the American Psychological Association (APA)

🔢 Page numbering

General rules:

• All pages in the report (within but excluding the front and back covers) are numbered
• On some pages (special pages), the numbers are not displayed

Contemporary vs. traditional design:

Design type	Front matter (before introduction)	Body (from introduction onward)
Contemporary	Arabic numerals	Arabic numerals
Traditional	Lowercase roman numerals	Arabic numerals

Special pages:

• On special pages (title page, page one of the introduction), page numbers are not displayed
• Page numbers can be placed in several areas; usually best and easiest is bottom center of the page (remember to hide them on special pages)
• If you place page numbers at the top of the page, you must hide them on chapter or section openers where a heading or title is at the top of the page

Don't confuse: Contemporary vs. traditional page numbering—contemporary uses arabic numerals throughout; traditional uses lowercase roman numerals for front matter and arabic numerals from the introduction onward.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The final section of a report can take several forms—summary, true conclusion, afterword, or a combination—and the choice depends on the report's length, complexity, and purpose.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Four ways to end a report: summary, "true" conclusion, afterword, or no conclusion at all (though the last is rare and abrupt).
• Summaries vs. true conclusions: summaries review high points from a higher perspective; true conclusions present logical resolutions or choices based on the body's discussion.
• Afterwords: turn to related topics at a general level, such as future trends, implications, or applications, without forcing a new detailed section.
• Common confusion: don't mistake an afterword for another body section—it must remain general and brief, not dive into new technical detail.
• Combinations work: in practice, final sections often blend summary, conclusion, and afterword elements.

📝 Types of final sections

📝 Summaries

A summary reviews and highlights the main points of the report from a higher perspective.

• When to use: long, complex, heavily detailed reports where readers need the right perspective.
• When not to use: short reports—readers may think "You've just told me that!"
• How to write: as if time has passed and you are viewing the subject from higher ground.
• Example: A report on desalination methods ends by reviewing the three freezing techniques, their advantages over other methods, and the need to pair desalination with nuclear or solar power.

🔍 "True" conclusions

A "true" conclusion presents logical resolutions, choices, or final judgments based on the discussion in the body.

• What it does: resolves conflicting theories, chooses the best model or brand, or states final conclusions drawn from the evidence.
• How it differs from summary: it doesn't just review; it decides or concludes something.
• Example: A report on solar heating systems concludes by recommending specific design features (collector transmissivity, insulation thickness, control module priority) and advising homeowners on how to prioritize components.
• Don't confuse: a true conclusion is not a new argument—it must be supported by the body of the report.

🌐 Afterwords

An afterword turns to a related topic but discusses it at a general level, without forcing a new detailed section.

• Purpose: broaden focus to future developments, implications, applications, or related issues.
• Key rule: keep it general—don't create another body section.
• Example: A report on plastics in automobile components ends by discussing future trends, such as the need for lighter cars, breakthroughs in fiber-reinforced plastics, and predictions for the mid-1980s auto industry.

Possible afterword topics (from the excerpt):

• Brief, general look to the future; speculate on future developments.
• Explore solutions to problems discussed in the main body.
• Discuss operation of a mechanism or technology described earlier.
• Provide cautions, guidelines, tips, or preview of advanced functions.
• Explore economics, social implications, problems, legal aspects, advantages, disadvantages, benefits, or applications (briefly and generally).

🔗 Combinations

• In practice, final sections often mix elements: a bit of summary, a bit of conclusion, and a bit of afterword.
• You can analyze a final section and identify which elements are present.

⚠️ Revision checklist

⚠️ Common pitfalls

• Afterword too detailed: if your afterword reads like another body section, it's not general enough.
• Unsupported conclusions: avoid stating conclusions for which there is no basis or discussion in the body.
• Too long: keep final sections brief and general.

⚠️ When no conclusion is acceptable

• The excerpt notes it is possible to end with no conclusion at all.
• However, this is "a bit like slamming the phone down without even saying good bye"—usually not recommended.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Every field and organization uses style conventions to shape how documents look and function, and understanding these conventions is essential for credibility and effective communication in academic, professional, and online contexts.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What style conventions are: field-specific or organization-specific rules that govern document appearance, language use, terminology, and source citation.
• Where they apply: academic papers (MLA, APA), journalism (AP), engineering (IEEE), businesses (brand identity), government, and web publishing (W3C).
• Why they matter: following conventions signals professionalism and credibility; ignoring them can make readers question your reliability.
• Common confusion: style conventions vs. good design—observing conventions is necessary but not sufficient; you still need to consider many other design and communication choices.
• Audience-driven: the format and style you choose must match your audience's familiarity, needs, and the context in which they will interact with your text.

📚 What style conventions govern

📚 Scope of conventions

Style conventions: rules that dictate what documents should look like, how language is used, preferred terminology and vocabulary, and the way sources are cited.

• They are not just about fonts or margins; they cover multiple dimensions of a document.
• Different fields have different conventions:
  • Academic: MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association)
  • Journalism: AP (Associated Press)
  • Engineering: IEEE (Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
  • Web publishing: World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) guidelines

🏢 Organizational style

• Established firms (e.g., Panasonic, IKEA, eBay, Sears, Trader Joe's) create recognizable logos and ensure documents follow agreed-upon styles to preserve brand identity.
• Government and military documents also follow style conventions.
• Example: An organization's letterhead, logo, and document templates all reflect its style to make communications instantly recognizable and trustworthy.

🎓 Why conventions matter

🎓 In school and professional contexts

• In school: you are told to respect style, citation, and formatting conventions (e.g., MLA or APA).
• In the professional world: you must find out what the field-specific or company-specific conventions are.
• Don't confuse: knowing the rules is the starting point, but good communication requires more than just following conventions.

🔍 Credibility and trust

• Style conventions signal that you understand your field and respect your audience.
• Example: Many people hesitate to trust an undated, unsourced blog written by a stranger—and rightly so.
• Wikipedia is used as a source in certain contexts precisely because there is predictable, reliable regularity to its content and format; its consistent "look and feel" is familiar worldwide.
• Lack of consistent style on web pages can detract from readability and make it hard to know who wrote the text, where it comes from, or when it was produced.

📝 Format expectations

• Certain documents have traditional formats:
  • Cover letters: should generally follow traditional business letter format.
  • Memos and emails: look slightly different (e.g., no address block for the recipient on an email, because you don't need a street address to reply).
• Example: A cover letter with an unconventional format may make readers suspect your credibility or professionalism.

🎨 Beyond conventions: design and audience

🎨 More than just following rules

• Producing good publications goes way beyond just observing style conventions.
• There are many important choices to make as you plan how best to communicate your message, whether on paper or onscreen.
• The excerpt emphasizes that conventions are necessary but not sufficient for effective communication.

👥 Knowing your audience

• To some extent, you already adjust vocabulary and tone to suit your audience.
• Thinking about your audience's potential needs, biases, knowledge, attitudes, and preferences helps you present your text suitably.

👥 Format and audience fit

• The context and audience often determine the format(s) you can use.
• Example: You wouldn't send a booklet full of images to a teacher to inquire about your child's progress; you can't hand out copies of your blog at a music festival and expect it to get read right away.

👥 Audience characteristics to consider

Consider the strengths and weaknesses of different formats for your particular audience by asking:

Question	Why it matters
Are they already familiar with the ideas?	Determines how much background you need to provide
Do they already know something about the subject?	Shapes vocabulary and depth of explanation
What do they still need to know?	Guides what information to include
Are there ideas likely to confuse them?	Helps you anticipate and clarify difficult points
How will they interact with the text?	Glancing at a poster vs. studying a business plan requires different design
How much information do they need to take in?	Affects length and density
How much time do they have?	Influences format and structure
Do they agree with you?	Determines whether you need to persuade
Age, education, language, condition, cultural/social background?	All affect how you communicate effectively

• Knowing things about your audience can help you communicate effectively with them.
• Don't confuse: audience analysis is not just about politeness; it directly shapes format, content, and design choices.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective technical writing requires analyzing your audience's knowledge, needs, cultural background, and interaction context so you can choose the right format and tailor your message appropriately.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Audience analysis drives format choice: the context and audience determine which formats are appropriate and effective.
• Consider audience knowledge and attitudes: what they already know, what confuses them, whether they agree with you, and how open they are to your message.
• Interaction matters: how much time they have, whether they're glancing or studying, and their physical ability to interact with the format.
• Common confusion: format familiarity varies—don't assume all audiences understand hyperlinks, maps, or interface conventions the same way.
• Cultural and linguistic diversity: reading direction, language background, and cultural expectations shape how audiences process information.

📋 What audience analysis involves

🎯 Knowledge and attitudes

Before writing, assess what your audience already knows:

• Are they familiar with the subject matter and assignment context (like classmates and instructors)?
• What do they still need to know?
• Which ideas might confuse them?
• Do they agree with your position, or must you persuade them?

👥 Demographics and background

Consider multiple audience characteristics:

• Age and education level
• Language background
• Physical condition and ability
• Cultural and social background

Example: A classroom audience already understands the assignment context, so you can adjust vocabulary and tone accordingly.

⏱️ Interaction context

Think about how readers will engage with your text:

• Will they glance quickly (like at a poster) or study carefully (like a business plan)?
• How much information must they absorb?
• How much time can they devote to reading?

🎨 Format selection and constraints

📦 Context determines format

Some situations require specific formats:

• You wouldn't send an image-filled booklet to inquire about a child's school progress
• You can't distribute blog copies at a music festival and expect immediate reading

Don't confuse: format appropriateness with format preference—context and audience needs override personal format choices.

🔧 Format strengths and weaknesses

Evaluate each format for your specific audience:

• Does the format allow you to provide the information readers need?
• Can your audience interact with this format effectively?
• Does the format match the amount of information and time available?

Available formats include:

• Print: letters, papers, flyers, posters, booklets, brochures, pamphlets
• Digital: PowerPoint, blogs, apps, tweets, web pages, vlogs, videos, audio files

🧩 Format familiarity varies

Don't assume all audiences understand every format convention:

• Would a grandfather recognize a blue hyperlink on a blog?
• Would a third grader know how to unfold and read a topographical map?
• Do physical abilities affect text interaction?

Example: The excerpt shows how computer interfaces evolved from command-line (text-only, complex) to graphical user interfaces (visual, intuitive) because designers at PARC, Apple, Atari, and Microsoft recognized that most users needed easier interaction methods.

🌍 Cultural and linguistic considerations

📖 Reading direction differences

Western readers expect left-to-right text flow, but this is not universal:

Language group	Reading direction	Design implication
English, most European	Left to right	Standard Western layout
Arabic, Urdu, Farsi, Hebrew	Right to left	Requires adapted interface design

Example: Twitter had to adapt their product specifically for Arabic-speaking audiences because of right-to-left reading conventions.

🗣️ Multilingual audiences

Communities accommodate diverse audiences through multilingual communication:

• The excerpt shows a Canadian stop sign in English and French
• A Glendale, CA road sign appears in multiple languages including Armenian

Key principle: Information design must account for different language backgrounds, cultural concerns, and preferences.

🎭 Visual communication needs

Some audiences benefit from or require non-text elements:

• Does your audience need illustrations?
• Is a short video better than text-only content?
• Which formats support the information delivery your readers need?

⚠️ Matching format to audience and message

🚫 When formats fail

Some format-message-audience combinations don't work:

• The excerpt shows examples of formats unsuitable for certain audiences (though specific details of the images are not provided in the text)
• A format appropriate for one audience may be completely ineffective for another

✅ User-centered design wins

Attention to user preference and experience creates loyal audiences:

• The excerpt notes that "attention to the preference and experience of its users has consistently won Apple Computer legions of loyal fans"
• Moving from complex command-line interfaces to graphical interfaces made technology accessible to broader audiences

Don't confuse: what you find easy to use with what your audience finds easy—your familiarity with a format doesn't guarantee audience comfort.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Before creating any written communication or publication, you must clearly articulate what you want to achieve—whether to inform, persuade, or instruct—because unfocused purposes lead to ineffective communication.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose drives everything: You must define your purpose (inform, persuade, instruct, etc.) before thinking about design or content.
• Format must match purpose: Some purposes cannot be achieved in writing alone; diagrams, graphics, or video may be necessary.
• Focus beats breadth: Trying to accomplish too many purposes in one short publication usually fails; specific, focused content is more helpful and interesting.
• Common confusion: Personal expression vs. professional purpose—in academic and professional settings, you may need to sublimate personal feelings to achieve your communication goal.
• Planning prevents failure: Professional publishers plan scrupulously, mock up publications in advance, and ensure their purpose is achieved before writing a word.

🎯 Defining and clarifying purpose

🎯 What purpose means in written communication

Purpose: what you want to achieve with a piece of written communication or publication.

• Every piece of writing has a purpose, even if it's just self-expression.
• In academic and professional settings, self-expression is less important than achieving specific communication goals.
• You must be clear about your purpose before you can think about design or content.

🚫 When personal feelings must be sublimated

• Professional contexts may require you to set aside personal feelings if the situation calls for it.
• Example: No matter how strongly you feel about being billed incorrectly for internet service, abusive language or profanity in business correspondence is generally not effective and may undermine your purpose entirely.
• Don't confuse: expressing your feelings vs. achieving your communication goal—the latter takes priority in professional settings.

🔍 Common purposes in professional writing

The excerpt identifies three main purposes:

• Inform: provide information to the reader
• Persuade: convince the reader of something
• Instruct: teach the reader how to do something

Each purpose may require different formats and approaches.

📐 Matching format to purpose

📐 Why format matters

• Your purpose determines the best format for achieving it.
• Some things are very difficult or impossible to express effectively in certain formats.
• Example: Trying to explain how to shoot a free throw in prose only, with no visuals, is incredibly difficult no matter how skilled you are as a writer. Your purpose may require diagrams, graphics, or even video.

🏀 When writing alone is not enough

• The best way to teach people how to shoot free throws is to take them to the basketball court and let them try it.
• Consider if your purpose can even be achieved in writing at all.
• Before firing up software and creating off the top of your head, spend some time articulating your purpose and the appropriate format.

⚖️ Managing scope and focus

⚖️ The danger of doing too much

• Consider how many purposes you can manage at once, especially if your text needs to be brief.
• Example: A single short brochure that attempts to (1) advertise services at a community center, (2) encourage healthy eating habits, and (3) persuade the audience of the benefits of a municipal bond measure will probably fail on one or all counts. That's a lot to cover in a short publication.
• Don't try to do too much in a short format.

🎯 Specific beats general

• More specific, focused content is nearly always more helpful and interesting to a reader.
• Example: A brief booklet that explains the ins and outs of kitesurfing in Kailua will accomplish a lot more than a general "Travel in Hawaii" brochure, which is likely to be pretty but not terribly informative.

📋 Meeting audience expectations

📋 When purpose is set for you

• Sometimes your purpose is set for you by the genre or context.
• Readers of certain documents will expect certain information.
• Example: Readers of a business plan will expect an executive summary, a rundown of marketing strategies, financial requirements and assets, and a description of how the business will function.
• Know your audience, and make sure you cover all the required or conventional elements that they will expect.

❌ Consequences of unclear purpose

Failing to understand your purpose (and your audience's needs, which drive your purpose) can cause you to produce a publication that readers can't use.

Example	Problem	Result
Garage sale sign with no dates and no address	Missing essential information	Readers can't use it; they'll just ignore it
Flyer for kids' soccer camp without what to bring or daily schedule	Incomplete information	You'll get a lot of annoying phone calls and emailed questions

🛠️ The planning process

🛠️ How professionals approach publication

• Most professional publishers plan scrupulously, then produce many drafts and get tons of feedback to ensure that their purpose is being achieved.
• Publications like brochures, booklets, and posters are "mocked up," or sketched out in advance.

📝 What to determine in advance

Before writing a word, determine:

• What can be covered in the available space
• How many images or photos are needed
• How much text the writer needs to produce
• Your purpose, concept, audience, goals, format, and material needs (images, graphics, text, headlines, color schemes, etc.)

🪓 The sharpening-the-axe principle

"If I had eight hours to chop down a tree, I'd spend six hours sharpening my axe." —Abe Lincoln (supposedly)

• Creating a publication requires you to think in advance about all elements.
• Do your due diligence so your final product will have been worth the time you spent on it.
• Don't confuse: starting to create immediately vs. planning first—the excerpt emphasizes that planning is the larger and more important part of the work.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The CRAP design principles—Contrast, Repetition, Alignment, and Proximity—help writers create publications that are visually inviting, easy to scan, and professional-looking by strategically using difference, consistency, and spatial relationships.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Contrast draws attention: The human eye is drawn to difference, not size—contrasting elements (size, font, color, alignment, white space) make documents scannable and guide readers through information.
• Repetition creates continuity: Elements with similar functions should be formatted identically throughout a document to show relationships and maintain a professional, cohesive look.
• Common confusion: Bigger doesn't always mean more noticeable—contrast (difference) is what attracts the eye, so a small element that differs from its surroundings can stand out more than a large uniform one.
• Why it matters: Without contrast, nothing stands out and documents are hard to parse; without repetition, documents look chaotic and unprofessional.
• Templates help manage complexity: Software templates and style settings ensure consistent formatting across multiple elements, making it easier to apply CRAP principles.

🎨 Contrast: Using Difference to Guide the Reader's Eye

🎨 What contrast means

Contrast: using difference in visual elements to draw readers' eyes to and through your text or publication.

• The human eye is drawn to difference, not necessarily size or color alone.
• When everything looks the same, it's difficult to focus on anything; when things are different, they become noticeable.
• Contrast helps readers:
  • Scan documents quickly
  • Identify which items are most important
  • Follow the flow of information
  • Assess what requires immediate attention

🔍 Why difference matters more than size

• A person's height isn't particularly noticeable until the principle of contrast comes into effect.
• Example: Olympic gymnasts meeting the President—both are "fierce," but one is dramatically smaller; the contrast in size provides visual drama.
• Don't confuse: Making something bigger doesn't automatically make it more noticeable—novelty and difference are what impress the eye.
• Warning: Too much size contrast (huge type, excessive CAPS LOCK) can be counterproductive; less is more.

📰 Contrast in everyday publications

• Headlines in newspapers and web pages are always different from body text—bigger, bolder, or in a different typeface.
• This makes it easy to skip from story to story and get a cursory understanding.
• Documents with few or no contrasting elements:
  • Nothing stands out
  • Aren't easy to scan
  • Don't invite readers to jump in
  • Are harder to parse

🔧 Seven Elements of Contrast

📏 Element I: Size

• Your eye moves toward things because they're different, not because they're large or small.
• Size contrast works when there's a noticeable difference between elements.
• Example: A resume with varied heading sizes versus uniform text—the size difference helps readers identify sections quickly.

🔤 Element II: Font (Size/Style/Weight)

Typeface vs. Font:

A typeface is a collection of fonts (also called a font family). A font is a particular size, style, and weight within a typeface.

• Common typefaces: Times New Roman, Arial, Bookman, Georgia, Garamond.
• Choose fonts that fit your purpose—some (like script) are too hard to read for body text.

Serif vs. Sans-serif:

Type	Characteristics	Common use
Sans-serif	Simple, smooth, no "feet" or ornamentation (e.g., Helvetica, Futura)	Headlines
Serif (Roman)	Display "feet" and ornamentation (e.g., Baskerville)	Body text (many typographers think they make large blocks easier to read)

• Each typeface family contains many sizes and styles: light, regular, bold, italic, condensed, upper/lower case, small caps, etc.
• Example: Newspapers use large sans-serif headlines and smaller serif fonts for body text.

🔄 Element III: Direction or Position

• Changing the orientation of text or graphic elements (vertical, horizontal, circular, diagonal) attracts attention.
• Graphic elements include lines, banners, or screens (smaller transparent or opaque boxes, often in contrasting colors).
• Example: An image oriented on the diagonal with an opaque screen behind text and logo creates visual interest.
• Templates for flyers, newsletters, web pages, and PowerPoint can help provide visual interest.

↔️ Element IV: Alignment

• Most students know MLA/APA styles mandate left-aligned body text and centered headlines.
• A change in alignment creates visual interest—headlines are often centered to make them noticeable.
• Important for presentations: If text blocks and headlines aren't aligned identically across slides, they will appear to "jump around" the screen in a distracting way.
• Templates help track every element's alignment consistently.

🖼️ Element V: Graphic Elements

• Photos, banners/bands, pull quotes, logos break up huge blocks of text and add visual appeal.
• Warning—less is more: Avoid text that is bold AND underlined AND multicolored AND flashing with bright backgrounds and too many animated GIFs—it repels readers.
• Example: Fashion magazines use striking images and pull quotes that contrast with less-distinctive elements like body text and background.

🌈 Element VI: Color

• Use color to make certain elements stand out and create drama through contrast.
• Make sure you don't use too many colors.
• Ensure color combinations are easy to read.
• Example: Contrasting colors in text, images, and design elements (like infographics) guide the reader's attention.

⬜ Element VII: Negative (White) Space

Negative space (or white space): the space around text, images, and other elements in a document.

• White space makes documents:
  • More readable
  • More restful-looking
  • More inviting to the reader
  • Simpler and more elegant
• Associated with a "high-end" look (restaurant or salon menus).
• The absence of content provides air and space, drawing the reader's attention to the content itself.
• Example: A high-end restaurant menu with generous white space versus a crowded, text-heavy menu—both may be delicious, but one looks more elegant.

🔁 Repetition: Creating Continuity Through Consistency

🔁 What repetition means

Repetition: visual or textual elements that have similar functions should be formatted similarly throughout a document to create continuity and show close relationships between elements.

• Repetition provides a sense of order and continuity that makes documents more readable and professional-looking.
• Example: Newspapers have consistent ways of labeling sections (like Sports), plus design consistency throughout so you can tell which newspaper you're reading.

📋 Repetition in practice

In resumes:

• All bullet points listing job duties should be formatted identically:
  • Same font, size, line spacing, indentation
  • Same distance from text above and below
  • Exactly the same bullet shape and size

In academic styles (MLA/APA):

• All titles are centered
• All page numbers in the upper right-hand corner (after last name and one space)
• Same typeface throughout
• Exactly one empty line space between paragraphs

In publications:

• Every line classified as a "headline" should look like a headline
• Headlines formatted alike can be identified as having similar functions
• Body text fonts should not change without a reason
• Lines, logos, and other graphic/visual elements should be formatted consistently

🛠️ Tools for managing repetition

• Templates: Ready-made layouts into which you plug text and photos to produce documents with a consistent look and feel.
• Styles (e.g., Microsoft Word): Keep formatting choices (size, font, bold/italic) the same for blocks of text with the same functions (body text, headlines, bullet points, subheadings).
• Templates for newsletters, resumes, and PowerPoint presentations ensure basic design elements (font size/style, color, image size and alignment) are consistent from page to page.
• Since managing formatting of multiple elements by hand can be difficult, these tools are essential for maintaining repetition.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Repetition, alignment, and white space are fundamental design principles that make documents more readable, professional, and inviting by creating visual consistency and deliberate arrangement.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Repetition principle: visual or textual elements with similar functions should be formatted identically to create continuity and show relationships.
• Alignment principle: all content should follow a clear, deliberate grid or pattern rather than random placement.
• White space (negative space): the absence of content around text and images makes documents more readable, restful, and elegant.
• Common confusion: repetition is not just about repeating content—it means keeping formatting choices (font, size, spacing, indentation) consistent for elements with the same function.
• Why it matters: these principles make documents look professional, help readers navigate content, and are easier to achieve using templates and style tools.

🎨 Contrast through white space

🎨 What negative space does

Negative space, or white space: the space around text, images, and other elements in a document.

• White space is not wasted space—it actively improves readability.
• The excerpt describes it as making documents "more readable, more restful-looking, more inviting to the reader, simpler, and more elegant."
• It is associated with a "high-end" look (like upscale restaurant menus).

🔍 How white space attracts attention

• Sometimes the best way to create contrast is "to go negative."
• The absence of content provides "air and space" and draws the reader's attention to the content itself.
• Example: A high-end menu uses generous white space around text, making each item stand out; a crowded menu with little white space looks less elegant.

🔁 Repetition: creating visual consistency

🔁 The core repetition rule

The basic rule of repetition: in any text, visual or textual elements that have similar functions should be formatted similarly in order to create continuity and show close relationships between the elements.

• Repetition applies to both visual and textual elements.
• It creates a sense of order and connection throughout the document.
• Example: A newspaper like USA Today uses consistent color coding and design throughout, making it instantly recognizable.

📋 Repetition in common documents

Resume example:

• All bullet points listing job duties should be formatted identically: same font, size, line spacing, and indentation.
• Each group of bullet points should be the same distance from text above and below.
• The bullet points themselves should be exactly the same shape and size.

Academic style example (MLA/APA):

• All titles are centered.
• All page numbers are in the upper right-hand corner, after your last name and a single blank space.
• The same typeface is used throughout.
• All paragraphs have exactly one empty line space between them.

🛠️ Tools for managing repetition

• Managing multiple formatting elements by hand can be difficult.
• Templates: ready-made layouts into which you can plug text and photos to produce documents with a consistent look and feel.
• Styles (e.g., Microsoft Word Styles menu): keep formatting choices like size, font, and style (bold, italic) the same for blocks of text with the same functions (body text, headlines, bullet points, subheadings).
• Templates for newsletters, resumes, and PowerPoint presentations ensure basic design elements like font size/style, color, image size, and alignment are consistent from page to page.

⚠️ What inconsistent repetition looks like

The excerpt contrasts two resumes:

• Consistent version: choices made for typefaces, size, position, and indentation are consistent; each section is laid out identically.
• Inconsistent version: inconsistent line spacing, typeface, alignment and indentation, and type size choices.

Don't confuse: Repetition is not about repeating the same content—it's about keeping formatting consistent for elements with similar functions.

📐 Alignment: deliberate arrangement

📐 What alignment means in design

Alignment: how the entire document is arranged; most designers align all their content to some sort of a grid or pattern, creating a distinct, intentional arrangement of items on a page or screen.

• Alignment refers to more than just text alignment (like left-aligned body text in MLA style).
• It means arranging all content—text, images, graphics—according to a deliberate pattern or grid.
• Designers use plenty of white space to cushion items, which makes higher-contrast items "pop."

🖼️ The picture-hanging analogy

• Imagine hanging 20 pictures on a wall—you should not just throw them up randomly.
• You might:
  • Measure and equalize distances between items.
  • Put unusual items in certain places (like in the center).
  • Put similarly shaped or sized items together.
• This provides a sense of order to your arrangement.
• Example: Even though a gallery wall arrangement could seem random, there is some regularity and an overall shape or grid governing the position of each picture.

🛠️ Tools for achieving alignment

• Software grids: many programs allow you to draw lines or use an invisible grid to which you can "snap" items like images, blocks of text, or graphics.
• Templates: do the hard work of arranging items on a page or screen for you.
• Popular tools: WordPress, Illustrator, Publisher, Word, PowerPoint—they allow you to arrange items easily without lining everything up by hand.

📰 Historical context: pre-digital layout

Before digital publishing, layout artists used:

• Various kinds of tape, contact cement (rubber cement), or wax adhesives to stick cut-out headlines, text blocks, photos, and ads to a page.
• Wooden or metal rulers, graph paper, and T-squares to line up text and image blocks.
• It was slow, tedious work.

The digital publishing revolution eliminated these manual processes, making layout much easier.

🔍 Alignment problems still exist

• Alignment problems have not all been solved in the digital era.
• The excerpt shows before-and-after images demonstrating how alignment affects website usability.
• Less deliberate alignment vs. controlled, arranged items on a screen produces noticeably different results.

Don't confuse: Alignment is not just about text justification—it's about the overall arrangement of all elements on a page according to a deliberate grid or pattern.

🎓 Practical implications

🎓 Why these principles matter

Principle	Benefit	Example
White space	Makes documents more readable, restful, inviting, simple, and elegant	High-end restaurant menu vs. crowded menu
Repetition	Provides sense of order and continuity; makes documents look professional	Consistent resume formatting vs. inconsistent formatting
Alignment	Creates visual order; improves usability	Well-arranged website vs. randomly placed elements

🎓 Learning curve

• Learning how to arrange text and images artfully on a page takes "tons of time."
• It requires "a whole email inbox full of user feedback, collaboration, thought, and hard work."
• The excerpt acknowledges it will only acquaint readers with "some of the most basic elements."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Alignment and proximity—two of the four CRAP principles—help create readable, organized documents by arranging items deliberately and grouping related elements together.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Alignment means arranging all content on a page according to a deliberate grid or pattern, not just text justification.
• Proximity groups items with similar functions or purposes together so readers understand their relationship.
• Common confusion: Alignment is not only about left/right text alignment; it refers to the entire spatial arrangement of all document elements.
• Why it matters: Both principles create visual order, make documents easier to navigate, and help readers understand which elements belong together.
• Tools help: Templates and software (WordPress, PowerPoint, etc.) automate much of the alignment work that once required manual layout.

📐 Alignment: arranging items deliberately

📐 What alignment means in document design

Alignment in document design: the deliberate arrangement of all items on a page or screen according to a grid or pattern.

• It is not just text alignment (left, right, center, justified).
• It refers to how the entire document is arranged—text blocks, images, graphics, and all other elements.
• Designers align content to an invisible grid or pattern to create a distinct, intentional arrangement.

🖼️ The picture-hanging analogy

The excerpt compares alignment to hanging 20 pictures on a wall:

• You should not throw them up randomly.
• Instead, you measure and equalize distances, place unusual items deliberately (e.g., center), and group similar items together.
• This provides a sense of order to the arrangement.

Example: Even when pictures seem randomly placed, there is often an overall shape or grid governing each picture's position.

🛠️ How tools make alignment easier

Before digital tools:

• Layout artists used tape, rubber cement, or wax adhesives to stick headlines, text blocks, photos, and ads to pages.
• They used wooden/metal rulers, graph paper, and T-squares to line up elements.
• It was slow, tedious work.

After digital tools:

• Software packages (WordPress, Illustrator, Publisher, Word, PowerPoint) allow you to draw lines or snap items to an invisible grid.
• Templates do the hard work of arranging items for you.
• The digital publishing revolution eliminated manual layout labor.

Don't confuse: Even with digital tools, alignment problems still exist—poor alignment choices can make websites and documents hard to use.

🎯 Why alignment matters

• White space: Designers use plenty of white space to cushion items, making higher-contrast items "pop."
• Usability: Controlled, arranged items on a screen are easier to read and navigate than randomly placed elements.
• Visual clarity: Deliberate alignment creates a clear, intentional structure that guides the reader's eye.

The excerpt shows before-and-after website images demonstrating how alignment affects usability.

🧲 Proximity: grouping related items

🧲 What proximity means

Proximity: Items that have similar functions or purposes should be grouped together.

• When design or text elements are placed next to each other in certain ways, readers understand they are meant to be considered together and have some relationship.
• Grouping signals to viewers that elements belong to the same category or serve the same purpose.

🪨 The rock formation analogy

The excerpt contrasts two images:

1. Random boulders: A collection of rocks with no apparent purpose or grouping.
2. Ham Hill Stone Circle: A deliberate grouping constructed in 2000 to commemorate local stonemasons and quarrying history.

The second photo shows deliberate grouping—the stones are intentionally arranged to convey meaning and relationship.

📝 How proximity works in documents

When elements are grouped by proximity, readers see their relationship:

Element	Relationship shown by proximity
Captions	Placed next to photos/figures to explain their contents
Images	Placed near body text they illustrate
Headlines	Placed above body text whose content they describe in briefer form

Example: In a newsletter, certain pages or panels might be grouped under a subheading, showing they share a theme.

🎨 Proximity in multi-page documents

• Booklets, newsletters, brochures: Individual pages can be designed to reflect a larger relationship with the overall theme.
• Blogging platforms (e.g., WordPress): Themes ensure every page has a recognizable layout—individual pages might differ slightly but remain recognizably part of the same site.
• Consistency across pages: Proximity helps readers understand that different pages belong to the same publication or project.

Don't confuse: Proximity is about spatial grouping, not just visual similarity—elements must be physically close to signal their relationship.

🔧 Practical takeaways

🔧 Learning alignment and proximity takes practice

• Arranging text and images artfully on a page takes tons of time.
• It requires user feedback, collaboration, thought, and hard work.
• The chapter introduces only the most basic elements of design.

👀 Start noticing CRAP everywhere

After reading this chapter, you'll start seeing CRAP (Contrast, Repetition, Alignment, Proximity) principles in action—or their absence—in documents, websites, and publications you encounter.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proximity—grouping related items together—helps readers understand which design elements belong together and what relationships exist between them.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What proximity means: items placed near each other signal to readers that they have a relationship or should be considered together.
• How proximity works: closeness creates perceived relationships; distance weakens them.
• Where proximity matters: captions with images, headlines with body text, pages within a publication, and white space distribution.
• Common confusion: if related items (like captions and images) are too far apart, readers may not understand what connects to what.
• Why it matters: proper grouping makes relationships clear and prevents confusion about what is—and is not—related.

🪨 Understanding proximity through grouping

🪨 Random vs deliberate grouping

The excerpt uses two rock formation examples to illustrate the concept:

• A random collection of boulders has no clear purpose or relationship.
• The Ham Hill Stone Circle shows deliberate grouping—stones placed together with intention to commemorate stonemasons and quarrying history.

Key insight: When design elements are placed next to each other in certain ways, readers or viewers can see they are meant to be considered together and have some sort of relationship.

🔗 How proximity signals relationships

Proximity principle: when design or text elements are placed next to each other in certain ways, readers can see that they are meant to be considered together and have some sort of relationship.

Common pairings that rely on proximity:

• Photos and figures with their captions
• Nearby images that illustrate body text content
• Headlines placed above the body text they describe

Example: A caption placed far from its image may confuse readers about which image it describes.

📄 Proximity in multi-page publications

📄 Larger document structures

Proximity operates at multiple scales:

• Within pages: individual elements grouped together
• Across pages: certain pages or panels grouped under subheadings
• Whole publications: individual pages designed to reflect relationship with overall theme

🌐 Consistent layouts

The excerpt explains how platforms handle proximity automatically:

• WordPress themes provide recognizable layouts across all pages
• Individual pages might differ slightly but remain recognizably related to the blog's main page
• Websites and book chapters work the same way

Why this matters: Readers can navigate more easily when they recognize the structure and relationships between sections.

⚪ White space and proximity

⚪ How spacing indicates relationships

The principle of proximity even affects white space: equal amounts of white space and equal line spacing indicate that items are related or should be considered as parts of a whole.

Key mechanism: Consistent spacing creates visual unity; inconsistent spacing suggests separation.

⚠️ When proximity fails

The excerpt warns: "If headlines, captions, or body text blocks aren't close enough to the image or text to which they are related, the reader could be confused about what is—and is not—related."

Don't confuse: Physical distance on the page directly affects perceived conceptual distance in readers' minds.

🚫 Examples of proximity problems

🚫 The prunes and flour ad

The excerpt shows a 1945 advertisement where emphasis and spacing create confusion:

• The ad's question asks: "Are prunes and flour different types of eggs on offer?"
• Poor proximity makes it unclear what items are grouped together or what the relationships are.

🚫 The confusing Venn diagram

Multiple proximity failures in one diagram:

• Different font weights, sizes, and quotation marks without clear purpose
• "Acceptable" category entries appear in both top left and bottom right of the circle
• Their distant position (poor proximity) makes the relationship of these terms unclear
• No headlines or labels to help clarify
• The design strategy doesn't help readers understand

Lesson: "Planning and adjusting how items are grouped on a page helps you design your text, graphics, and images so that readers can see what's related, what goes together, what's different, and what is similar."

👥 Proximity in action

👥 The couple illustration

The excerpt describes an image where it's immediately clear which two people are the couple—they are positioned close together.

The same principle applies to:

• Headlines and body text
• Groups of bullet points
• Images and captions
• "and a whole lot more"

🎯 The core rule

What is close together will be seen to have a relationship. Moving items further away decreases the strength of that relationship in the minds of your readers.

Practical application: Use physical distance deliberately to show or hide relationships between elements.

🎓 Practice activity

The excerpt includes a hands-on exercise:

• Go online or into the world
• Find publications (print or electronic) that convey messages clearly
• Critique them according to Purpose, Audience, and CRAP principles
• Find one example that does not achieve its goal
• Identify and describe which principles are not being followed in less-effective publications

Purpose: Apply proximity (and other CRAP principles) to real-world examples to develop critical design evaluation skills.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Slide presentations should support—not replace—your spoken content, and good design means keeping slides simple, focused, and minimal rather than text-heavy or overloaded.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The core problem: text-heavy, unfocused, overlong presentations are the issue, not the software itself.
• What slides should do: add value by showing data points or key summaries that viewers can't easily remember or write down on their own; don't read slides aloud.
• Design principle: simplicity is best—use high-quality graphics sparingly, limit text and bullet points, and think of slides as reminders, not pages to read.
• Common confusion: slides vs. content—slides are a support tool, not the presentation itself; the presenter delivers the content, not the projector.
• Consistency matters: apply CRAP principles (especially Repetition and Alignment) to maintain a consistent visual theme and readable fonts.

🚫 The fundamental problem with slide presentations

🚫 What went wrong after 1990

• Microsoft introduced PowerPoint in 1990; it allowed fast creation of professional-looking slides.
• Over time, stock images (arrows, businesspeople, stick figures) and jewel-toned backgrounds became tired and failed to impress.
• Critical thinkers began asking: "Do we really need all these slide shows?"

🔍 Software is not the issue

• Many alternatives exist (Keynote, Prezi, SlideRocket, Easel.ly, Emaze, Slidedog, etc.), some free.
• Microsoft is refreshing PowerPoint design options.
• The real problem: text-heavy, unfocused, overlong presentations—not the software.
• Example: A presenter who loads every slide with paragraphs of text and reads them aloud is misusing the tool, regardless of which software they choose.

❌ What annoys audiences most

The excerpt lists common annoyances:

• Reading slides aloud: "considered one of the single most annoying things a presenter can do."
• Excessively small text: viewers can't read it from a distance.
• Complex visuals and distracting animations: they pull attention away from the message.
• Don't confuse: a visually busy slide with a visually appealing slide—complexity and distraction are not the same as quality design.

🎯 What slides should actually do

🎯 Add value, don't replace content

Think of a slide presentation as a way of supporting or augmenting the content in your talk; don't let the slides replace your content.

• Slides should provide something necessary to the audience.
• If you can't explain how the slides add value, don't use them.
• Example: Good presentations contain data points that speakers can't just rattle off, or quick summaries of key concepts that viewers won't be able to make up on the fly.

📝 Information worth writing down

• Design slides so they contain information viewers might want to write down.
• This means data, summaries, or key concepts—not full paragraphs or everything you plan to say.
• Don't confuse: slides as a script for the presenter vs. slides as a resource for the audience—the latter is the goal.

🗣️ Engagement over passive viewing

• Consider designing for audience participation instead of passive slideshow viewing.
• A good group activity or two-way discussion keeps an audience engaged better than a stale, repetitive set of slides.

🎨 Design tips for good slides

🎨 Simplicity and focus

• Simplicity is best: use a small number of high-quality graphics; limit bullet points and text.
• Don't think of a slide as a page that your audience should read.
• Break information into small bites; make sure the presentation flows well.
• Think of a slide as a way of reminding you and the audience of the topic at hand.

🔁 Consistency (CRAP principles)

• Slides should have a consistent visual theme.
• Apply Repetition and Alignment (from CRAP) rigorously.
• Some professionals advise avoiding stock PowerPoint templates, but:
  • If you don't have considerable design skill, templates are your best bet because they enforce consistency.
  • You can buy more original-looking templates online if you dislike the stock ones.

🔤 Fonts and readability

• Choose fonts carefully.
• Text must be readable from a distance in a darkened room.
• Practice good Repetition: keep fonts consistent across all slides.

🎤 Practice and delivery

• Practice your presentation as often as you can.
• Key insight: Software is only a tool; the slide projector is not presenting—you are.
• Realizing this distinction is half the battle.

🛠️ Practical advice and resources

🛠️ Learn from bad examples

• Try Googling "annoying PowerPoint presentations."
• You'll get a million hits with helpful feedback and good examples of what not to do.
• This is a useful way to understand audience frustrations.

🛠️ Checklist for avoiding common mistakes

Mistake	Why it's a problem	What to do instead
Reading slides aloud	Most annoying thing a presenter can do	Speak naturally; let slides remind, not script
Text-heavy slides	Strains audience's capacity to identify important information	Limit text; use slides for key data/summaries only
Complex/distracting visuals	Worse than no graphics at all	Use high-quality, simple graphics that match content
Inconsistent design	Confuses and distracts viewers	Apply CRAP; use templates if needed
Small, unreadable text	Viewers can't see from a distance	Test readability in a darkened room

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective communication requires combining good content with thoughtful design principles and audience awareness, because even the best message will fail if it is confusing, inaccessible, or poorly presented.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What texts are: forms of nonverbal or mixed communication aimed at specific audiences, always expressing goals or purposes.
• The dual nature of content: like water, content takes the shape of its container (design matters), but if the content itself is poor, no container will save it.
• Modern communication challenges: reaching large, diverse audiences is easier than ever, but also creates greater risk of being ignored, misinterpreted, or criticized.
• Common confusion: focusing only on the container (design) or only on the content—both must work together for effective communication.
• Core success factors: clear purpose, attention to audience needs, and adherence to basic design principles protect against common criticisms.

📦 The nature of texts and communication

📦 What texts encompass

Texts are forms of nonverbal (or not exclusively verbal) communication aimed at a particular audience, always expressions of some set of goals or purposes.

• Texts can include multiple elements:
  • Visual elements
  • Sound
  • Textual elements
  • Graphic elements
  • Even textures (example: a book of fabric samples)
• The excerpt emphasizes that texts are not just written words—they are multi-modal communication tools.

🎯 Purpose-driven communication

• Every text expresses "some set of goals or purposes."
• Communication is intentional, not accidental.
• Example: a presentation, website, or brochure each serves specific communicator goals.

🌊 The water metaphor: content and container

🌊 Content takes the shape of its container

• "Content is like water—it takes on the shape of whatever you pour it into."
• The container (design, format, medium) matters because it shapes how content is received.
• This means design choices directly affect message delivery.

💧 Content quality determines value

• Content is also like water in another sense: "If it's no good, no one will want to drink it down."
• Poor content won't satisfy the audience's "thirst for knowledge, for instructions, for information."
• Don't confuse: a beautiful container cannot compensate for worthless content; both must be strong.

⚖️ The balance required

The excerpt identifies three essential elements working together:

1. Good content
2. Focused, clear purpose
3. Careful attention to audience needs

When combined with an appealing container, "your message will shine through, and you will achieve your goal as a writer."

🌐 Modern communication challenges and opportunities

🌐 Unprecedented reach and risk

• Opportunity: "Reaching a large audience has never been easier."
• Challenge: Communicating with "many different kinds of people creates new challenges."
• The global internet provides "an audience as vast and diverse as" has never existed before.

⚠️ Risks of poor execution

The excerpt lists specific risks when communication fails:

• Being ignored
• Being misinterpreted
• Being misunderstood
• Being criticized
• Being trolled

🛡️ Protection through design principles

• "If you adhere to basic design principles, at least you will be safe from the most basic kinds of criticism."
• Specific examples of what to avoid:
  • Confusing PowerPoint presentations
  • Distractingly busy websites
  • Cheesy-looking brochures

🔑 Critical requirements

Requirement	Why it matters
Clear, easy-to-access texts	Critical for diverse audiences
Being clear about your message	Vitally important to avoid misinterpretation
Basic design principles	Protects from fundamental criticism

🎓 The communicator's responsibility

🎓 Accessibility and clarity as priorities

• "Providing clear, easy-to-access texts is critical."
• "Being clear about your message is vitally important."
• These are not optional—the excerpt frames them as essential responsibilities.

🔧 Tools and choices

• "There is a vast array of tools to help you communicate whatever you wish to any audience you choose."
• The abundance of tools means communicators must make thoughtful choices.
• Example: choosing between different media, formats, or platforms requires understanding both content needs and audience expectations.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Thorough preparation—finding suitable job openings, inventorying your own skills, and researching both the employer and the specific job—saves time in drafting and helps you tailor your application materials effectively.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Save the job posting: companies often delete postings once they have enough applicants, so print or save your own copy to use when tailoring your materials.
• Self-inventory overcomes writer's block: brainstorming your skills, accomplishments, and action verbs before drafting helps you avoid feeling you have "nothing to include" or that you are "bragging."
• Research the employer's values and tone: understanding the company's mission, brand, and audience lets you adapt your tone, examples, and level of technicality.
• The job description is your secret weapon: it tells you exactly what the employer wants, so annotate it to identify qualifications you hold, key terms to echo, and gaps to address.
• Common confusion: don't treat preparation as optional—adequate prep time directly reduces headaches during drafting and increases the relevance of your materials.

🔍 Finding a suitable job opening

🔍 Where to search

The excerpt lists multiple resources for job seekers:

• Job boards: sites like Indeed, CareerBuilder, Glassdoor, and Monster for broad searches.
• Specialty job lists: industry-specific sites (e.g., Poached for food service, Idealist for nonprofits, MediaBistro for media).
• Company and government websites: visit the employment section of organizations you admire, or search federal, state, county, and city sites for government postings.
• Your own network: talk to friends, past employers, professors, or use LinkedIn to find openings at companies in your network.
• Your college: visit the placement office or career center and attend job fairs.

The excerpt notes that craigslist postings often lack detail and may come from headhunters rather than direct employers.

💾 Save your own copy

Because companies often delete the job posting once they have received sufficient applicants, it is important that you save your own copy of the document by copying the text and pasting it into a new document, or by saving the webpage.

• You will use this document to tailor your application materials.
• Example: an organization removes the posting after receiving 100 applications; if you didn't save it, you lose the details you need for your cover letter.

🧠 Conducting a self-inventory

🧠 Why do a self-inventory

The excerpt identifies two common hurdles:

• Worrying that you have "nothing valuable to include."
• Worrying that you are "bragging."

Allocating pre-writing time to a self-inventory helps you get over these hurdles by brainstorming your skills, accomplishments, and knowledge before you try to format them.

📝 What to brainstorm

Ask yourself:

• What did you accomplish at work, school, or a volunteer position?
• What skills have you learned?
• What would you tell a friend or family member you were proud of having achieved?

Start writing down key terms and action verbs that describe your experiences and accomplishments; don't worry yet about putting them into résumé format.

🎯 Using action-verb lists

The excerpt recommends browsing a key-term list organized by skill categories (Communication Skills, Creative Skills, Management/Leadership Skills, Helping Skills, Organizational Skills, Financial Skills, etc.).

Process:

1. Scan the groupings for key terms related to skills you have or work you have done.
2. Write down (1) categories of skills you have and (2) action verbs that describe your skills or work (e.g., analyzed, performed, calculated, advocated).

Example table from the excerpt:

Communication/People Skills	Creative Skills	Management/Leadership Skills	Helping Skills	Organizational Skills
Collaborated	Combined	Assigned	Aided	Arranged
Communicated	Created	Coordinated	Arranged	Categorized
Developed	Developed	Decided	Assisted	Distributed
Edited	Drew	Improved	Contributed	Organized
Incorporated	Illustrated	Led	Cooperated	Recorded
Proposed	Planned	Managed	Encouraged	Responded
Suggested	Revised	Oversaw	Helped	Updated
Synthesized	Shaped	Recommended	Motivated	Tracked
Translated	Crafted	Reviewed	Supported	Monitored
Facilitated	Conceived	Supervised	Prepared	Synthesized
Mediated	Established	Delegated	Bolstered	Adapted

✅ Verify your information

As you gather information, double-check that it is accurate and current:

• Dates of employment.
• Dates of trainings.
• Lists of activities you have been involved in.
• Academic awards, achievements, and special projects.

Job descriptions or performance reviews from previous jobs can also include key terms to include on your résumé. Ask former coworkers or managers about your significant workplace contributions.

🤝 Partner exercise

The excerpt suggests a ten-minute partner exercise:

• Speaker: describes past work history and experience, especially as it relates to the job at hand.
• Scribe: takes notes, noting key terms, asking detail questions (who, what, when, where, why), and helping identify skills or achievements the speaker may not realize they have (because they assume "everyone can do" them).
• Then switch roles.

🏢 Researching your potential employer

🏢 Why research the employer

It is important to research both the potential employer and the job for which you're applying. Understanding the company helps you adapt your tone, examples, and level of technicality to your audience.

🌐 Where to research

• Company website: look for an "about us" page or "mission statement"; observe how the company describes its goals and values.
• LinkedIn and social media: search for the company's name.
• News articles and press releases: browse for articles about the company or press releases written by the company.
• Your network: speak with friends or colleagues who work for the company.
• Informational interview: call the company to request one.

❓ Questions to answer

Try to answer the following about the company or organization:

• Whom does this company serve?
• Who are this company's partners or competitors?
• What technologies would I use at this company?
• What is the tone of this company's materials (formal, conservative, humorous, "cutting edge," etc.)?
• How would you describe this company's brand?

🔗 Connect with the company

As you research, look for ways to connect:

• What do you admire about the company?
• Where do your values and interests overlap with those of the company?
• What makes this company a good fit for you?

Try to summarize your connection to the company in one sentence. Remember that your potential employer is also your audience.

📋 Researching the potential job

📋 The job description is your secret weapon

The job description is your secret weapon; in this document, you are told what the employer is looking for in a candidate.

Print out the job description and annotate it; get into a conversation with it.

✏️ How to annotate the job description

• Highlight or underline any qualifications that you hold—any skills you have, technologies you've used, etc.
• Make note of any past achievements that relate to any of the preferred qualifications. Example: if the job description seeks a candidate who can diagnose and solve technical problems, write down a specific time in which you did so in a professional or academic setting.
• Circle any key terms you might use in your own materials. Using the same terms as a potential employer demonstrates that you are able to "speak their language."
• Note any questions/uncertainties and any qualifications you do not have, in order to decide what to highlight and what to downplay in your materials (as well as what you need to learn more about).

☁️ Word cloud technique

The excerpt recommends making a word cloud of your job description using a site like www.wordle.net (you cut and paste the text of the job description into a word cloud generator).

A word cloud presents text as a visual display, reorganizing content so that the largest words are those that appear most frequently.

Why it helps:

• A word cloud is a helpful visual tool to identify key terms to use in your résumé and cover letter.
• You might be surprised to find that a "big word" (a commonly repeated key term) is one that you would not automatically associate with the job.

Example: in a children's museum job description word cloud, obvious terms like "museum," "children," "exhibits," and "playing" appear large—but so do "diversity" and "diverse." If you were applying for this job, you would now know to talk about your commitment to diversity or experience working with people from diverse backgrounds.

Don't confuse: the largest words are not necessarily the most obvious job-title words; they reveal what the employer emphasizes most frequently in the posting.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A résumé's format should be chosen based on your work history and career situation, with chronological, functional, and hybrid formats each serving different strategic purposes in marketing your qualifications.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Dual purpose of a résumé: it provides an overview of skills, experience, and education related to your career objective, and it serves as a marketing tool for your "personal brand."
• Three main formats: chronological (emphasizes employment history), functional/skills (emphasizes skill categories), and hybrid/combination (blends both approaches).
• Format selection depends on situation: chronological suits uninterrupted work histories in fields where employer names matter; functional suits career transitions, military-to-civilian shifts, or skills gained across diverse settings.
• Common confusion: the difference lies in organization—chronological lists achievements under each job; functional groups achievements under skill categories; hybrid does both.
• Substance over flash: the best way to stand out is through customization and substance, not gimmicks.

📋 The three résumé formats

📋 Chronological résumé

Chronological résumé: a traditional format whose principal section is the "Employment Experience" section, where jobs are listed in reverse chronological order and achievements/skills are detailed underneath each position.

Key characteristics:

• Lists both work and education in reverse chronological order (most recent first, working backward).
• Job achievements and skills appear under each position.
• Experience is presented under headings by job title, company, location, and dates of employment.
• Allows employers to easily determine work performed at each company.

When to use:

• You have a long or uninterrupted work history.
• You work in fields where the company name is of paramount importance.
• Your career progression is clear and linear.

Example structure: The excerpt shows Tina Sparkles' résumé with Education section first, then Experience section listing positions from most recent (September 2014–present) backward to 2008–2010, with detailed bullets under each job.

🎯 Functional (skills) résumé

Functional (skills) résumé: features a well-developed "Skills & Achievements" section in which skills are organized into categories; still includes an "Employment Experience" section, but it is streamlined to include only basic information about each position held.

Key characteristics:

• Focuses on skills and experience rather than chronological work history.
• Groups functions or skills under categories (e.g., "Print Management," "Event Management," "Editorial Design").
• Describes responsibilities, accomplishments, and quantifiable achievements under categories in the skills section.
• Typically opens with a brief summary/profile detailing strengths (one to three sentences).
• Demonstrates how you match job requirements by including relevant achievements and accomplishments.

When to use:

• You are transitioning between fields.
• You are shifting from a military to a civilian career.
• You have gained skills in a variety of different settings (workplace, academic, volunteer).
• You want to emphasize what you can do rather than where you've worked.

Example structure: The excerpt shows Anonymous's résumé with a summary paragraph, then "Experience" section organized by skill categories (Print Management, Event Management, Editorial Design), followed by streamlined "Employment" section listing only job titles, dates, companies, and brief descriptions.

Don't confuse: Functional résumés still list employment history—they just don't detail achievements under each job. The achievements are reorganized into skill categories instead.

🔀 Hybrid (combination) résumé

Hybrid (or combination) résumé: includes a well-developed "Skills & Achievements" section that highlights the candidate's most important and relevant skills, but also includes select bullets under each job in the "Employment Experience" section.

Key characteristics:

• Offers "the best of both worlds."
• Features a prominent "Skills and Abilities" section with categorized achievements.
• Also includes select bullets under each job in the "Employment Experience" section (not as detailed as chronological, but more than functional).
• Usually opens with a summary statement.

When to use:

• The excerpt states this format is "the easiest to customize for a number of different potential employers."
• You want to highlight both your skills and your work history.
• You want flexibility in emphasizing different aspects for different applications.

Example structure: Anthony Swift's résumé shows a Summary, then "Skills and Abilities" section with categories (Technical Skills, Organization and Professional Development Skills, Instruction Skills), followed by Education, then "Work Experience" with job titles, employers, dates, and 2–3 bullets per position.

🎨 Core principles of effective résumés

🎨 Purpose and branding

The excerpt emphasizes a twofold purpose:

1. Overview function: A résumé provides an overview of your skills, experience, and education as they relate to your career objective.
2. Marketing function: A résumé is a marketing tool that conveys your "personal brand."

How to stand out:

• All candidates want their résumés to stand out from the stack.
• The best approach is not through gimmicks or flash.
• The best approach is through substance and customization.

🧩 Format selection strategy

The decision framework:

• Work histories come in a variety of forms; so do résumés.
• Career experts debate which style is best, but ultimately you must consider which fits your current situation.
• Ask yourself: "Which style will allow you to best package your work history and convey your unique qualifications?"

Comparison table:

Format	Principal focus	Employment section	Best for
Chronological	Employment history	Detailed achievements under each job	Long/uninterrupted work history; fields where employer name matters
Functional (Skills)	Skills & achievements	Streamlined (basic info only)	Career transitions; military-to-civilian; skills from diverse settings
Hybrid (Combination)	Both skills and history	Select bullets under each job	Maximum customization; emphasizing both capabilities and experience

📝 Customization emphasis

The excerpt repeatedly stresses customization:

• Functional and hybrid formats are "the easiest to customize for a number of different potential employers."
• The following section (Key Sections of a Résumé) will emphasize functional and hybrid formats for this reason.
• Customization is part of the "substance" that makes résumés stand out, not superficial design tricks.

Don't confuse: Customization means adapting content and organization to fit different employers and situations—it does not mean using flashy design elements or gimmicks.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A well-structured résumé must include certain expected sections—contact information, headline/summary, skills, employment, and education—and should emphasize quantifiable achievements in active voice while avoiding generic filler language.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Seven key sections employers expect: contact info, headline/summary (not objective), skills/achievements, employment experience, education, optional sections (volunteer/activities), and references (on separate sheet only).
• Active voice and quantifiable detail: use action verbs with specific numbers (employees supervised, money handled, clients served) rather than passive phrases like "duties included" or "was responsible for."
• Two bullet formulas: "Verb + Details = Results" or "Accomplished [X] as measured by [Y] by doing [Z]" to show impact and the "so what" factor.
• Common confusion—objective vs. headline: objectives emphasize what you want; headlines/summaries emphasize what you offer the employer and are now preferred.
• Design and length conventions: one to two full pages (justified by work history), strategic use of white space and formatting, and field-specific conventions may vary.

📋 Required sections of a résumé

📇 Contact information (Section 1)

• Create a header with:
  • Address
  • Telephone number
  • Professional e-mail address
  • Possibly a LinkedIn page
• This section appears at the top of the résumé.

🎯 Headline/Summary/Profile (Section 2)

Headline (also called Summary, Profile, or Highlights of Qualifications): a brief summary of your professional self to grab your reader's attention, functioning as your "elevator pitch" and offering a quick impression of your personal brand.

• Include a few key relevant achievements or strengths (in bullets or sentences).
• Especially useful for candidates with long work history or who have experienced job transitions.
• Two one-sentence headline formulas:
  • "Accomplished [job title]/Certified [industry] professional holding more than [x] years of experience, specializing in [x,y,z]."
  • "[Field of study] graduate seeking opportunity to focus on [x,y,z] and promote [desired company's mission or goal]."

Don't confuse with Objective statements: Most experts now recommend leaving objectives off entirely because they emphasize what you want from a job rather than what you can offer an employer, making them a waste of space.

💼 Skills/Achievements/Qualifications (Section 3)

• Use sub-headers to group skills into skill set headings (management skills, customer service skills, laboratory skills, communication skills, etc.).
• Use targeted headings based on the qualifications your potential employer is seeking.
• Include only the most relevant, targeted skills and achievements.
• Emphasize quantifiable achievements and results: skills, equipment, money, documents, personnel, clients, etc.
• Use active voice (supervised sixteen employees, increased profits, built websites) vs. passive voice (was responsible for supervising or duties included…).

🏢 Employment Experience (Section 4)

• List positions in reverse chronological order (most recent first).
• Include basic information for each job:
  • Job title
  • Employer
  • Dates employed
  • City/state (and country if outside the U.S.) of employment
• Include internships and skilled volunteer positions (but if you do, title the section "Experience" rather than "Employment").
• Consider filtering work experience into "Related Experience" and "Experience" instead of one employment section to highlight most relevant jobs and downplay less significant experience.

🎓 Education (Section 5)

• Placement: after the headline/summary section if it is recent and relevant; after the experience section if your stronger qualification is employment experience.
• List the most current degree/school attended first, and proceed in reverse chronological order.
• Include for each educational item:
  • Name of the school
  • School's location
  • Graduation date or anticipated graduation date
  • Degree earned (and major if appropriate)
• DO NOT include high school if you are in college unless your high school work was outstanding or unique (like a trade/technology/arts high school).
• DO include trainings and certifications (e.g., first aid certifications, sales seminars, writing groups).

Develop this section by adding educational accomplishments:

• Your GPA (if it is 3.0 or better, and if it is expected in your industry)
• Relevant courses (if they prepared you for the job)
• Special accomplishments (conferences, special papers/projects, clubs, offices held, service to the school)
• Awards and scholarships (could also be separate section—Honors)

🌟 Optional Sections (Section 6)

Volunteer Work:

• List skilled volunteer work (building websites, teaching classes) under skills, along with your other qualifications.
• Include general volunteer work (making meals for a soup kitchen, etc.) toward the end of your résumé in its own section or under activities.

Activities:

• DON'T include a section titled "Hobbies" or "Other" with irrelevant interests.
• DO include interests that may be relevant to the position but aren't professional skills (sports for Nike, Eagle Scouting for leadership, golfing for business jobs, game design/play for game design jobs, blogging for PR jobs)—market yourself in the best light.
• DO include honors, awards, publications, conferences attended, languages spoken, etc. You may choose to include a separate honors section or fold these into your skills/achievements section.

📞 References (Section 7)

• Do not list references on your résumé. Instead, give a separate sheet at the employer's request.
• Generally, three references are sufficient.
• The most important references are your superiors, but you can also use co-workers, clients, or instructors.
• Contact each person to verify his/her willingness to act as a reference for you.
• Your reference sheet should match the look of your cover letter and your résumé.

✍️ Writing style guidelines

🚫 Avoiding "Me" and "I"

The convention in a résumé is to write in sentence fragments that begin with active verbs. Therefore, you can leave out the subjects of sentences.

• Example: "I eliminated the duplication of paperwork in my department by streamlining procedures" would become "Eliminated paperwork duplication in a struggling department by streamlining procedures."

📊 Quantifiable skills

The more you can present your skills and achievements in detail, especially quantifiable detail, the more authoritative you will sound.

Include references to:

• Technologies and equipment you have used
• Types of documents you have produced
• Procedures you have followed
• Languages you speak
• Amounts of money you have handled
• Numbers of employees you have supervised or trained
• Numbers of students you have taught
• Technical languages you know
• Types of clients you have worked with (cultural backgrounds, ages, disability status—demographic information that might be relevant in your new workplace)
• Graphic design, blogging, or social media skills

🗑️ Filler words (fluff)

Avoid generic filler words that can be found on many résumés and don't suggest meaningful skills.

Filler words include: "team player," "results-oriented," "duties include," "fast-paced," and "self-motivated."

• If you MUST use these phrases, find concrete examples to back them up.
• Example: instead of using "team player," include a time you collaborated with peers to earn a good grade on a project, save your company money, or put on a successful work event.

🎯 Results

In at least one place in your résumé, preferably more, make mention of a positive impact (or result) of your skills/achievements.

Ask yourself: How did you create positive change for your employer, coworkers, or customers?

• Did you resolve a customer complaint successfully?
• Did you make a change that saved your employer money?
• Did you build a website that increased traffic to your client?
• Did you follow procedures safely and reduce workplace injuries?

🔨 Building better skill bullets

🔧 Formula 1: Verb + Details = Results

Start your bullet with an action verb describing a skill or achievement. Follow it with the details of that skill or achievement, and then describe the positive impact of your achievement.

Examples:

• Developed (VERB) new paper flow procedure (DETAILS), resulting in reduced staff errors and customer wait times (RESULT)
• Provided (VERB) friendly customer-focused service (DETAILS) leading to customer satisfaction and loyalty (RESULT)
• Organized (VERB) fundraising event (DETAILS) generating $xxx dollars for nonprofit (RESULT)
• Provided (VERB) phone and in-person support for patients with various chronic and acute health issues (DETAILS & RESULT COMBINED)
• Supported (VERB) 8-10 staff with calendaring, files, and reception (DETAILS), increasing efficiency in workflow (RESULT)

🎯 Formula 2: Accomplished [X] as measured by [Y] by doing [Z]

Develop your bullets by going into detail about how you accomplished what you have accomplished and why it matters to your potential employer.

Example progression:

• First Draft: Participated in a leadership program
• Second Draft: Selected as one of 125 for year-long professional development program for high-achieving business students
• Final Draft: Selected as one of 125 participants nationwide for year-long professional development program for high-achieving business students based on leadership potential and academic success

Note: The third version is not only the most specific, but it is the one that most demonstrates the "so what" factor, conveying how the applicant's skills will benefit the potential employer.

🔑 Key terms

Remember, use key terms you gathered in your pre-writing, preparation phase (from the job description, research into your field, and the "action verb" list presented earlier in this chapter).

• If your potential employer is using a résumé-scanning program, these key terms may make the difference between getting an interview or a rejection.

🎨 Format and design conventions

📏 Length

Résumé length is a much-debated question, and guidelines change as the genre changes with time.

• In general, the length of a résumé should be no longer than one or (at most) two pages (and each page should be full—no 1.5 page résumés).
• Some fields, however, may have different length conventions (academic résumés, for example, which include publications and conference attendance, tend to be longer).
• If your résumé is on the longer side, your work history should justify the length.
• Some experts recommend one page per ten years of work history; while that may be extreme, it is better to cut weaker material than to add filler.

🎨 Design principles

Résumé design should enhance the content, making it easy for the reader to quickly find the most significant and relevant information.

General guidelines:

• Templates are handy, but bear in mind that if you use a common template, your résumé will look identical to a number of others.
• Use tables to align sections, then hide the borders to create a neat presentation.
• Use ten-twelve point font.
• Don't use too many design features—be strategic and consistent in your use of capitalization, bold, italics, and underline.
• To create visual groupings of information, always use more space between sections than within a section. This way your reader will be able to easily distinguish between the key sections of your résumé, and between the items in each section.
• Use the same font in your résumé and your cover letter to create coherence.

🏭 Field-specific conventions

You may find that there are certain conventions in your field or industry that affect your choices in writing your résumé.

Factors that may vary across disciplines:

• Length
• Formality
• Design
• Delivery method
• Key terms

How to learn field conventions: Ask faculty or professional contacts in your field about employers' expectations, visit your school's career center, or conduct web research to make informed field-specific choices.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The cover letter functions as an argument for why you deserve an interview by providing depth and detail about your most significant qualifications, showing—not just telling—how you fit the position and company culture.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Breadth vs depth: the résumé gives a broad overview; the cover letter selects a few key qualifications and explores them in detail through paragraphed prose.
• First writing sample: the cover letter is the first piece of your writing the employer will see, making it a critical demonstration of your communication skills.
• Argument structure: treat the cover letter as a claim (you are qualified) supported by evidence (detailed examples from your work or academic history).
• Show, don't tell: use precise language and specific illustrations to help the reader picture you doing the job, rather than simply listing skills.
• Common confusion: cover letters are not outdated despite social media—they still serve critical functions that résumés and online profiles cannot fulfill.

📝 Core purpose and strategy

📝 Why cover letters still matter

• In the social media era, cover letters may seem outdated, but they serve functions that other formats cannot replace.
• The cover letter creates a picture of you as a potential employee and inspires the employer to learn more.
• Written in paragraphs rather than bullet points, it allows you to market your unique qualifications and demonstrate cultural fit.

🎯 The argument approach

Your cover letter is essentially an argument for why you should be granted an interview.

• Make a claim: you are qualified for the position.
• Support with evidence: demonstrate your authority by speaking in detail about your qualifications.
• SHOW the reader that you have the necessary skills and abilities—don't just state them.
• The more detail you offer and the more precise your language is, the more the reader will picture you doing the job.
• Example: Instead of "I have excellent customer service skills," describe a specific time you used those skills to diffuse a conflict or increase company profits.

🔍 Audience analysis and tone

• Use your audience analysis research to connect with the company.
• Choose appropriate tone, level of formality, and level of technicality based on your research.
• Follow the format for professional letters found in the Professional Communications chapter.

🏗️ Structure and outline

🏗️ Four-part framework

The excerpt provides a general outline for cover letters with four main sections:

Section	Purpose	Key elements
Salutation	Address the right person	Find a specific name or job title; use "Dear Hiring Manager" only if you cannot find a name
Opening Paragraph	State your purpose and strongest qualification	Position title, how you learned about it, connection with company, summary of strongest qualification(s)
Body Paragraph(s)	Develop key qualifications with evidence	Each paragraph = one key qualification + detailed illustration from your history + how it prepares you for this job
Closing Paragraph	Request next steps	Thank reader, gesture towards interview, provide contact information, refer to enclosed résumé

📬 Opening paragraph components

1. State why you are writing: specifically name the position to which you are applying.
2. Indicate how you learned about the position: mention networking if possible.
3. Establish a connection: use one sentence to connect with the company based on your audience analysis research.
4. Summarize your strongest qualification(s): in one sentence, highlight what makes you a strong candidate.

📦 Body paragraph construction

• Build each paragraph around a key qualification or professional strength that relates to the job.
• Open with a claim about this qualification/strength.
• Provide a developed illustration of a time in your work or academic history when you used/excelled at this skill, or used it to benefit others.
• Example: If the job requires excellent customer service skills, discuss a specific time you used those skills to diffuse a conflict or increase your company's profits.
• Conclude with connection: it can be effective to end middle paragraphs with sentences that express how these past experiences prepare you for the potential job.

🔚 Closing paragraph elements

• Thank the reader for his or her time and consideration.
• Gesture towards an interview—you may explicitly request one or use a phrase like "I look forward to discussing my qualifications with you in person, soon."
• Include any information the reader should know about getting in touch with you.
• If your phone number and email address do not appear elsewhere in the cover letter, include them here.
• You may refer the reader to your enclosed résumé.

📋 Sample cover letter breakdown

📋 Introductory paragraph example

The sample shows:

• Job title: "entry-level Database Administrator opening"
• Source: "At Portland State University's computer science job fair on April 9, 2017, I met with your representative, Ms. Karen Lincoln"
• Connection with organization: "I also have over a decade of experience in the steel and manufacturing industry EVZ specializes in"
• How experience matches: "My strong manufacturing and technological background prepares me to help EVZ continue your impressive track record of safety improvements"

📋 Body paragraph 1 example

The sample demonstrates:

• Connection with company goals/mission: "it's clear you are looking for someone who not only has technical skills, but who understands the steel industry"
• Specific example: promotion from Clerk to Machine Operator to Plant Safety Coordinator, implemented plant-wide safety program
• Quantified results: "saving my company roughly $15 million in recovered product, and reducing accidents by over 25%"
• Skills demonstrated: "accuracy, integrity, and strong problem-solving skills"

📋 Body paragraph 2 example

The sample shows:

• More detail on position requirements: Database Administration skills
• Specific supporting example: "Database Intern for Work Inc., I enrolled users, maintained system security, and monitored user access to the database, with 30-40 concurrent users at any given time"
• Academic credentials: "BA degree in Computer Information Systems and an AAS in Network Administration," "maintained a 4.0 GPA, was admitted to Phi Theta Kappa"
• Standard commitment: "a standard I will bring to EVZ"

📋 Closing paragraph example

The sample includes:

• Main objective: "I would like to speak with you to discuss how my experience can aid your commitment to improving safety, quality and processes"
• Contact information: "you can reach me at 503-555-6237 or johnice@email.com"
• Professional closing: "Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to meeting with you soon"
• Signature block and enclosure: "Sincerely, John Ice" followed by enclosure information

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Submitting job application materials requires careful proofreading and consistency, but you can work efficiently by creating modular templates that adapt to different positions rather than starting from scratch each time.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Submission quality matters: proofread carefully using multiple strategies, maintain consistency in formatting, and choose appropriate file formats.
• Modular approach saves time: create template versions of résumés and cover letters with interchangeable sections rather than rewriting everything for each job.
• Customization is still essential: always adapt materials to emphasize relevant skills for each specific position and never send the wrong employer name.
• Common confusion: "modular" does not mean sending identical materials to everyone—it means having reusable building blocks that you reorganize and revise for each application.
• Part of a larger process: résumés and cover letters exist within an "ecology" of employment documents including thank-you notes, writing samples, and interview materials.

📝 Submission guidelines

✅ Proofreading strategies

• Do not rely solely on spell-check software.
• Read your work backward one sentence at a time to focus on sentence-level errors rather than content flow.
• Ask multiple friends to proofread before sending.
• Example: Reading backward helps catch errors you might miss when reading normally because your brain fills in what it expects to see.

🎨 Consistency checks

Before submitting, verify:

• Verb tense remains consistent throughout
• Font choices stay uniform
• Design elements are applied consistently

📄 Format considerations

Submission method	Recommendation
Hard copies	Use high-quality paper
Electronic files	Save as PDF to preserve formatting and ensure wide readability
Email attachments	Send materials as attachments to a brief introductory email
Email body	Consider also including the résumé in the email body in case the employer is wary of attachments

⚠️ Email-specific rules

• Do not replace a formal job application letter with an email—the letter format is required for formal applications.
• Send a test copy to yourself first to verify the file opens and displays properly.

🔧 Modular materials approach

🧩 What "modular" means

Modular materials: employment documents with moving parts that you can adapt and reorganize for each job opening.

• You do not create entirely new résumés and cover letters from scratch for every application.
• Instead, you build templates with interchangeable sections that emphasize different aspects of your background.
• This approach balances efficiency with the necessary customization each application requires.

📋 Résumé templates example

The excerpt provides a nursing student scenario:

• The student seeks three different types of positions: administrative assistant in clinical settings, medical translator, or biology tutor.
• Using a functional (skills) résumé format, the student creates three template versions.
• Each template emphasizes and expands upon a different skill category: administrative, communication, or educational.
• All three versions stress the medical background as a common thread.

✉️ Cover letter adaptation

• Start with one draft cover letter as your template.
• Keep the overall format consistent across applications.
• The final paragraph often remains unchanged across applications.
• Central paragraphs may undergo substantial revision depending on how different one job is from another.
• Critical rule: Always change the employer name—addressing a potential employer by the wrong name will remove your application from consideration regardless of your qualifications.

🌐 Broader employment document context

📚 The "ecology" of employment documents

Résumés and cover letters are just two documents in a larger system that includes:

• Job descriptions
• Interview questions
• Thank-you notes sent after interviews
• Writing samples
• Hiring materials

Understanding this interconnected system helps you see how each document serves a specific purpose in the overall employment process.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Culture is a learned, shared, dynamic, systemic, and symbolic construct that shapes how identified groups communicate and must be understood to write effectively across cultural contexts.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What culture is: shared beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and assumptions of an identified group.
• Five defining properties: culture is learned, shared, dynamic, systemic, and symbolic.
• How culture operates: like mental programs or software that guide thinking, feeling, and acting patterns learned throughout life.
• Common confusion: culture appears static on the surface (visible behaviors) but operates as a deep structural system beneath the waterline—changes are slow and require addressing underlying patterns.
• Why it matters for technical writing: understanding your own cultural profile and context helps you communicate effectively with readers from different cultural backgrounds.

🧠 What culture means

📖 Definition and scope

Culture consists of the shared beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, values, and assumptions shared by an identified group of people.

• In technical writing, an "identified group" can be determined through prewriting audience analysis.
• Culture is not just about nationality or ethnicity—it applies to any group with shared patterns.
• Example: classroom expectations, workplace conventions, professional communities.

🔍 Mental programming metaphor

• Geert Hofstede describes culture as "software of the mind."
• Each person carries patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting learned throughout their lifetime.
• Peter Senge adds that mental models lock individuals and groups into specific perceptions about the world.
• These learned beliefs become what we consider valid, then get taught as cultural norms and expressed as daily behaviors.

🌟 Five core properties of culture

📚 It is learned

• Culture is not innate; it is acquired through conscious and unconscious learning over time.
• Learning turns into beliefs we consider valid.
• We teach each other these beliefs as cultural norms.
• They are then expressed in daily life as behaviors and actions.
• Example: You learn classroom or workplace conventions through experience and observation, not instinct.

🤝 It is shared

• Although you may think of yourself as an individual, you share beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, traditions, and assumptions with people from similar cultural backgrounds.
• Shared value systems make it easier to relate to others.
• The patterns of culture bind us together and enable us to get along.
• Don't confuse: sharing culture doesn't mean losing individuality—it means having common reference points.

🌊 It is dynamic

• Culture is fluid rather than static.
• Culture changes every day in both subtle and tangible ways.
• Humans communicate and express cultural systems in many ways, making it hard to pinpoint exact cultural dynamics.
• Important to pay attention to cultural context to understand the depths of its dynamic properties.

⚙️ Deep structural aspects

🔗 It is systemic

• Systems theory: cultures are interrelated, interconnected parts that create a whole.
• There are patterns of behavior and deeply rooted structural systems beneath the waterline.
• The iceberg metaphor:
  • What we see at the top: visible behaviors
  • What we don't see: what contributes to those behaviors
• To address the system, you must address the underlying patterns.
• These patterns are deeply embedded, requiring significant effort, time, and resources to change.
• Changes are slow and gradual; visible changes may not appear until months or even years later.

🎭 It is symbolic

• Symbols are both verbal and nonverbal within cultural systems.
• Symbols have a unique way of linking human beings to each other.
• Humans create meaning between symbols and what they represent.
• Different interpretations of the same symbol can occur in different cultural contexts.
• Example: A gesture, word, or image may carry different meanings across cultures.

🗺️ Understanding your own cultural context

🔎 Self-assessment approach

• The chapter references Erin Meyer's work on cultural profiles and context thresholds.
• Meyer's book explores expectations and understandings informed by culture.
• She examines how different cultural context thresholds affect transcultural communication.
• The excerpt mentions a self-assessment questionnaire and videos on:
  • Low context vs high context societies
  • "Upgraders" and "downgraders" in cultural disagreement
• Reflection questions to consider: What did you learn about your cultural profile? What don't you understand about your results? What similarities do you share with colleagues?

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Understanding your own cultural profile and how different cultural contexts shape communication thresholds is essential for effective technical writing across cultures.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Self-awareness first: Before addressing other cultures, identify your own cultural profile and communication patterns.
• Context matters: Different cultures operate on different context thresholds (low-context vs high-context), which affects how communication is interpreted.
• Upgraders and downgraders: Cultural differences in how people express disagreement and soften or strengthen messages impact cross-cultural understanding.
• Common confusion: Technical writers often focus on the primary reader but may overlook how the reader's cultural threshold changes what should be communicated and how (colors, layout, language, directness).
• Relationship vs directness: Some cultural contexts require relationship-building first, while others value direct communication; visual elements may also vary in importance.

🪞 Self-Assessment and Cultural Profile

🪞 Starting with self-awareness

• The excerpt emphasizes that before you move forward in addressing other cultures, you must first understand where you identify individually.
• This is not about judging others' cultures; it is about knowing your own baseline.
• The text references Erin Meyer's work on cultural profiles and context thresholds in transcultural communication.

🧠 Reflecting on your profile

The excerpt suggests:

• Take a self-assessment to discover your cultural profile.
• Reflect: Is there anything you learned that you did not know? Anything you do not understand?
• Share and compare with colleagues to find similarities you may not have known before.

Why this matters: Self-awareness is the foundation for recognizing how your own cultural assumptions shape your communication choices.

🌐 Context Thresholds in Communication

🌐 Low-context vs high-context societies

Cultural context thresholds: the degree to which communication relies on explicit verbal messages versus implicit shared understanding.

• Low-context: Communication is more direct and explicit; meaning is carried primarily in words.
• High-context: Communication relies more on shared background, relationships, and nonverbal cues; much is left unsaid.
• The excerpt notes that Meyer explores how these different thresholds affect transcultural communication.

Don't confuse: Context threshold is not about how much information is given, but about where the meaning resides—in explicit words or in shared cultural knowledge.

🗣️ Upgraders and downgraders

• Different cultures use different linguistic tools to express disagreement or soften/strengthen messages.
• Upgraders: words or phrases that intensify a statement.
• Downgraders: words or phrases that soften a statement.
• The excerpt highlights that understanding these patterns is crucial for interpreting disagreement across cultures.

Example: In one culture, a direct "no" may be acceptable; in another, disagreement may be expressed indirectly through downgraders, and a direct "no" could damage relationships.

✍️ Implications for Technical Writing

✍️ Thinking beyond the primary reader

The excerpt asks:

• How often do you think about the primary reader's culture?
• What would you change if the reader has a different cultural threshold?
• How much thought do you put into colors, layout, and language?

Key insight: Technical writing is not culturally neutral. The same document may need adjustments for readers with different cultural contexts.

🎨 Practical considerations

Element	Cultural consideration
Colors	Symbolic meanings vary by culture
Layout	Visual hierarchy and design values differ
Language	Directness, formality, and tone expectations vary
Relationship-building	Some contexts require establishing trust before delivering content
Visuals	Importance and interpretation of images/diagrams may differ

🔄 When to be direct vs when to build relationships

• The excerpt notes that there are different instances where you need to:
  • Build a relationship first (high-context cultures often value this).
  • Be more direct (low-context cultures may prefer efficiency).
  • Be more visual (depending on cultural preferences and literacy contexts).

Don't confuse: Being "more direct" is not always better or more efficient—it depends on the reader's cultural threshold. In some contexts, directness without relationship-building can undermine the message.

🧩 Symbols and Cultural Systems

🧩 Symbols are both verbal and nonverbal

Symbols: both verbal and nonverbal forms within cultural systems that link human beings to each other.

• Humans create meaning between symbols and what they represent.
• Key point: Different interpretations of a symbol can occur in different cultural contexts.
• This is relevant to technical writing because icons, colors, gestures, and even document structures are symbolic.

Example: A checkmark may mean "correct" in one culture but have a different or even negative connotation in another.

🔗 Symbols link people

• Symbols have a unique way of connecting human beings.
• Because meaning is created (not inherent), the same symbol can carry different messages depending on the cultural system.

Why this matters: When designing technical documents, assume that symbols are not universal. What seems obvious in your cultural context may be ambiguous or misleading in another.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Organizational culture controls behavior, values, and beliefs of members, and professional communicators must recognize that business communication now crosses cultures and borders rather than being confined to distinct national boundaries.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Organizational culture's role: it controls behavior, values, assumptions, and beliefs of members, combining individual beliefs with organizational values.
• Shift in community concept: the concept of community is undergoing fundamental transformation in contemporary society.
• Global business redefined: intercultural business focuses less on borders that separate people and more on communication that brings them together.
• Culture is more than physical constructs: culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group, plus psychological expectations of communication context—not just buildings and borders.
• Common confusion: don't assume intercultural communication only happens between different countries; it occurs whenever different cultural contexts meet, even within the same country or organization.

🌍 The nature of organizational culture

🏢 What organizational culture controls

Organizational culture: a system that controls the behavior, values, assumptions, and beliefs of organizational members.

• It is a combination of:
  • Members' own beliefs
  • The organization's values, beliefs, and assumptions
• Not a one-way imposition; it blends individual and institutional elements.

🔄 The leader's role

• Organizational leaders act as change agents.
• Their role: help create a positive organizational culture that meets:
  • Demands of a competitive environment
  • Board and shareholder expectations
  • Employee career satisfaction
• Why it matters: culture shapes how the organization adapts and performs.

🌐 The transformation of business communication

🔀 From borders to connections

• Old concept: global business as trade between companies in distinct countries.
• New reality: that concept is already outdated.
• Current focus: intercultural and international business focuses less on borders that separate and more on communication that brings people together.

Old view	New view
Trade between distinct national companies	Communication across cultures, languages, value and legal systems
Borders as primary framework	Borders crossed by communication roles

🗣️ What this means for communicators

• Business communication values clear, concise interaction that promotes efficiency and effectiveness.
• You may perceive your role as local (within a specific city, business, or organization).
• Reality: your role crosses cultures, languages, value and legal systems, and borders.
• Example: even if you work in one city, your communication may reach readers from different cultural backgrounds or organizational contexts.

🧱 Understanding culture beyond physical constructs

🏗️ Human constructs vs culture itself

• Physical representations (buildings, fences, borders) are representations of culture, but they are not all that is culture.
• Don't confuse: the built environment reflects design values and delineates borders, but culture is deeper.

🧠 What culture actually involves

Culture: beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people, as well as the psychological aspects of our expectations of the communication context.

• Shared elements: beliefs, attitudes, values, traditions.
• Psychological dimension: expectations of how communication should work in a given context.
• Why it matters: understanding culture means understanding both visible artifacts and invisible expectations.

🔧 Practical application: cultural revision

📝 Adapting communication for different cultures

The excerpt suggests a practical exercise for deepening cultural understanding:

1. Select a piece of communication (assignment or work document).
2. Choose a different culture for the primary reader (through research or discussion).
3. Revisit audience analysis principles.
4. Research what changes are needed to help the new primary reader take action.
5. Revise the document to fit the new cultural context.

🤔 Questions to consider

When thinking about the primary reader's culture:

• What would you change if the reader has a different cultural threshold?
• How much thought do you put into colors, layout, and language?
• Are there instances where you need to:
  • Build a relationship first (vs. being direct)?
  • Be more visual?
  • Adjust formality or structure?

🔍 Comparing communication across communities

• Example scenario: being part of two different communities concurrently (e.g., different classes in the same term).
• Differences in how communication functions may be affected by:
  • Subject matter
  • Instructor style
  • Peer dynamics
  • Class format
• Don't assume: even within the same institution or country, cultural communication norms can vary significantly.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

All communication is intercultural because culture influences every component of communication—from source and receiver to message, channel, feedback, context, environment, and interference—making even communication within families or organizations a cross-cultural act.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Eight components of communication: culture influences all eight parts (source, receiver, message, channel, feedback, context, environment, interference), not just the people communicating.
• Intercultural ≠ international only: communication between people from different regions, generations, genders, or even siblings involves cultural differences.
• Common confusion: thinking intercultural communication requires different countries or languages—in reality, rural vs. urban, North vs. South, or different generations within the same family all represent intercultural communication.
• Culture creates and is created by us: our upbringing shapes our worldview, values, and interaction styles; every organization has its own culture and subcultures.
• Why it matters for technical writing: considering cultural perspectives makes communication more effective and dynamic, especially when documents reach unintended or diverse readers.

🧩 The eight components of culture in communication

🧩 Beyond source and receiver

The excerpt identifies eight components of communication: (1) source, (2) receiver, (3) message, (4) channel, (5) feedback, (6) context, (7) environment, and (8) interference.

• It is tempting to focus only on the two people communicating (source and receiver) when thinking about intercultural communication.
• Why this is incomplete: the other six components are also influenced by and influence culture.
• Culture is represented in all eight components with every communication act.
• Implication: in this framework, all communication is intercultural.

🔍 What this means in practice

• Every message is shaped by cultural values and expectations.
• The channel (e.g., email, face-to-face, formal report) carries cultural norms.
• Feedback is interpreted through cultural lenses.
• Context, environment, and interference (noise, misunderstanding) are all culturally influenced.
• Example: a technical document sent via email (channel) may be read by colleagues from different departments (context) who interpret the formality (message) differently based on their subculture.

🌍 Intercultural communication beyond national borders

🌍 Same country, different cultures

• Common misconception: intercultural communication requires two people from different countries with different passports.
• Reality: people from different regions of the same country communicate interculturally.
• The excerpt gives examples:
  • High vs. low Germanic dialects
  • Southerner vs. Northerner in the United States
  • Rural vs. urban dynamics
• Geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits all influence communication.

🐑 The Chilean example

The excerpt contrasts a rural Southerner in Chile with a city dweller in Santiago:

Aspect	Rural Southerner	City dweller (Santiago)
Language	Castellano (Chilean Spanish)	Castellano (Chilean Spanish)
Life experience	Sheep farming, rural life	Urban life
Vocabulary	Distinct sheep markings, wool, wealth in livestock	All sheep look the same
Values	Sheep as food, wool, wealth	Different priorities
Education	Likely different	Likely different

• Key point: even though both speak the same language, their socialization influences how they communicate, what they value, and their vocabulary.
• Don't confuse: shared language does not mean shared culture or intracultural communication.

👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Intercultural communication within families and groups

👵 Three-generation family example

The excerpt asks: can there be intercultural communication within the same family? Answer: yes.

• Scenario: grandparents, parents, and children living in one house.
• Cultural differences:
  • Grandparents represent another time and different values.
  • Parents may have different education and careers from grandparents.
  • Children's schooling prepares them for yet another career.
  • Music, food preferences, and work styles vary across generations.
  • Example: Elvis Presley may seem like ancient history to the children.
• Conclusion: communication across generations represents intercultural communication, even if only to a limited degree.

👫 Gender and peer groups

• Even among people similar in age and educational level, gender and societal role expectations influence interaction.
• Example: boys and girls in a classroom communicate in distinct ways.
• Further: not all boys are the same, and not all girls are the same.
• Even among a group of sisters with common characteristics, differences contribute to intercultural communication.
• Core idea: we are each shaped by our upbringing, which influences our worldview, values, and interactions. We create culture, and it creates us.

🏢 Culture in organizations and technical writing

🏢 Organizational culture and subcultures

• Every business or organization has a culture.
• Within a global culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures.
• Example: the sales department vs. the accounting department in a corporation.
  • Two distinct groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values.
  • Within each group, there may be smaller groups.
  • Each member comes from a distinct background that influences behavior and interaction.

📄 Implications for technical communication

• Context shift: when a document leaves your computer, who will read it? Who could read it?
• Unintended readers: what will colleagues or readers of another culture take from it—intended or not?
• Common approach: sometimes the primary reader is clearly targeted through demographic research.
• Better approach: consider the potential cultural perspectives at work when the document is read.
• Why: thinking about cultural perspectives makes communication more effective and dynamic.

🔄 Revising across cultures

The excerpt includes a "Try This" exercise:

• If you had to resubmit a document in a different culture with a different context threshold, what would you revise?
• If you were a supervisor and the author/writer were of another culture, how would you communicate revision suggestions across a different context threshold?
• Implication: cultural awareness must extend to feedback and collaboration, not just the final document.

🧠 Core takeaway: culture is inseparable from communication

🧠 Culture as fabric of thought

"Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievements."

• We cannot escape culture; it shapes how we think and communicate.
• Even as we move into new contexts (work, organizations), culture remains with us.
• Don't confuse: leaving home or changing jobs does not mean leaving culture behind; we carry it and encounter new cultures simultaneously.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Successful professional writing depends on approaching writing as a research problem that requires curiosity, questioning, and metacognitive awareness—skills that transfer from classroom study to workplace practice.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Curiosity drives professional work: All professional work (engineering, architecture, writing) requires asking many questions to solve problems effectively.
• Good answers depend on good questions: Learning succeeds when we approach situations as puzzles to solve rather than seeking single "best answers."
• Writing research is metacognition: Studying writing means examining how people compose and use writing to solve their problems—"thinking about thinking."
• Common confusion: Technical writing courses don't teach every document type you'll need; instead, they provide a transferable "toolkit" of research methodologies to learn any new writing situation quickly.
• Why it matters: The questioning mindset and research methods learned in the classroom apply directly to learning unfamiliar writing tasks in any future profession.

🔍 The role of curiosity in professional work

🔍 Questions professionals must ask

The excerpt uses engineers and architects as examples. Before building or designing, they must ask:

• Who are the users? What is the purpose?
• What is the budget? What materials are available?
• What regulations must be followed?
• Who will collaborate, offer feedback, or make decisions?
• Who is impacted by the work?
• How much time is available?

Why these questions matter: The answers identify crucial information for making smart decisions. Most professional work demands willingness to ask many questions to do the job well.

🧩 Problems vs. single answers

Learning is most successful when we open ourselves up to being curious about a problem and approach situations as problems, or puzzles, to be solved, as opposed to situations that have a single best answer.

• The excerpt emphasizes that good work comes from treating challenges as puzzles, not as tasks with one correct solution.
• This mindset applies across professional fields and to the study of writing itself.

Example: An engineer doesn't just follow a formula; they investigate constraints, users, and context to design the right solution for that specific situation.

🪞 Writing research as metacognition

🪞 What writing researchers study

For the person studying writing, how writing is composed and used is the puzzle or problem to be solved.

• A writing researcher studies the engineer studying their problem and how they used writing as part of that process.
• This is "one step removed"—examining the process itself, not just completing the task.

🧠 Metacognition defined

Metacognition: "thinking about thinking."

How students practice metacognition:

• Instead of just completing an assignment, you reflect on:
  • What is being asked of you
  • Why it is being asked
  • How you should proceed to get the most out of it
• Taking time to compare new situations to past experiences increases awareness of your own learning and communication habits.

Don't confuse: Metacognition is not overthinking; it's strategic reflection that improves learning outcomes.

🎓 Why this matters for technical writing courses

🎓 The classroom-workplace gap

The excerpt explains a key challenge:

• In technical writing courses, you often work as a writing researcher.
• You write and examine texts in one context (the classroom) that are intended for use in another (the workplace).
• Students pursue very different careers; one course cannot cover every document type.

🧰 The transferable toolkit

What a technical writing course can offer you is a plan for learning all those kinds of writing more quickly, effectively, and efficiently.

What the course provides:

• Not exhaustive coverage of every document type
• Instead: methodologies and principles that comprise a "toolkit"
• You can take this toolkit to whatever profession you pursue or currently work in

Example: Rather than memorizing templates for 50 document types, you learn research methods to analyze and master any new writing situation you encounter in your career.

🔄 Applying learning across contexts

The excerpt emphasizes spending time thinking about how to apply classroom learning to professional work:

• The same questioning mindset applies to studying writing as to engineering or architecture
• The main difference: writing researchers study how writing is composed and used as the problem to solve
• This metacognitive approach helps you transfer skills from one context to another

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Genres are not just text types but actions that facilitate real-world work, and understanding how they cluster into sets and systems helps writers communicate more effectively in professional settings.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Genres as actions, not just texts: genres are texts-in-use that help people achieve purposes, not merely documents or forms.
• Conventions, not formulas: genres follow guiding principles but have no single "right way" to write them; variation exists for good reasons.
• Genre sets: the collection of all genres used in a particular job or profession (e.g., a teacher uses syllabi, lesson plans, assessments, emails).
• Genre systems: intersecting genres from multiple genre sets that work together to accomplish organizational work (e.g., job description → resume → cover letter → recommendation letters).
• Common confusion: distinguishing between workplace writing (emails, memos that facilitate work) and technical/professional writing (polished, industry-specific documents for external audiences).

📝 What genres really are

📝 Beyond music and movies

• Most people think "genre" means types of music, books, or films (country vs. rock, romance vs. sci-fi).
• Writing researchers mean something different:

Genre: a typical way of organizing, presenting, and using language in situations that recur over time.

• Examples include complaint letters, job descriptions, syllabi, lab reports, medical records, resumes, proposals.
• For every example, you can imagine who uses it, where, when, and for what purposes.

🎯 Texts-in-use: genres as actions

• Genres are not just descriptions—they are actions that facilitate achieving goals.
• Example: A medical form at the doctor's office isn't just a piece of writing; it facilitates the doctor-patient relationship.
• Example: A course syllabus brings the course "to life" and does tremendous work:
  • Primary audience: students (communicates expectations).
  • Secondary audiences: other teachers, supervisors, administrators.
• Key insight: Only by thinking of writing as actions—not just documents—can we learn how to write them effectively.

🧩 Content and presentation follow purpose

• Knowing who uses a text and why helps determine:
  • What the content needs to be.
  • How to present that content.
• Example: Job descriptions typically start with an overview and minimum qualifications.
  • Why? The overview attracts candidates; minimum qualifications help both candidates and companies work efficiently by filtering early.
• Sometimes minimum qualifications appear later—understanding why is the work of a writing researcher.

🔧 Conventions vs. formulas

🔧 No single "right way"

• Genres are governed by conventions (guiding principles), not rigid formulas.
• There is not one exact way to write any genre; exceptions always exist.
• Don't confuse: Looking for the "right way" vs. adopting a curious attitude.
  • A curious attitude serves writers better and reduces frustration when edits are needed.

🧪 Testing for genres

The excerpt offers a practical test:

Ask yourself: Who uses this text? If you can answer with a particular profession, it is probably a genre.

• Example: The "5-paragraph essay" is used by students and teachers but only leads to a grade; it's not used outside the classroom.
• The real-world equivalent is the scholarly research article, used by professors/researchers to communicate findings, with real consequences (tenure, funding, status).

📧 Workplace writing vs. technical writing

📧 Platforms and mediums

• Is an email a genre? A text message? A tweet? Maybe.
• These are often platforms or mediums for communicating a particular genre.
  • Example: An email might contain a job announcement or communicate with a doctor about symptoms.
• Conventions apply to emails and tweets, but they often serve as vehicles for other genres.

📊 Two categories of professional communication

Workplace Writing	Technical Writing
Facilitates production of other texts	Industry-specific, polished for external audiences
Memos, emails, meeting notes, announcements, informal reports	Grant proposals, instruction manuals, technical reports, white papers, user guides, policies & procedures
Internal, less polished	Public, more polished

• Workplace writing helps get work done day-to-day.
• Technical writing is the specialized, formal output of a profession.

🗂️ Genre sets: collections within a job

🗂️ What is a genre set?

Genre set: the collection of genres required for a particular job or position.

• Every profession requires communication in multiple genres.
• Understanding the genre set helps you:
  • Know the writing requirements of a job.
  • Identify areas of overlap for efficiency.
  • Understand how writing upholds (or undermines) organizational goals.

📚 Examples of genre sets

Teacher/Instructor:

• Syllabus, course calendar, lesson plans, assignment sheets, handouts, presentations, assessments, lecture notes, recommendation letters, grading/feedback, reports, emails.

Nurse:

• Shift report, patient notes, charting & documentation, orders, incident reports, peer review, emails, training exams, discharge instructions.

Engineer:

• Analyses, project descriptions, action reviews, progress reports, incident reports, inspection reports, proposals/plans, memos, emails, recommendations, patents, meeting notes, presentations.

💡 Why genre sets matter

• Many jobs are more writing-intensive than people realize.
• Knowing the genre set helps you prepare for a career and work more effectively once hired.

🔗 Genre systems: how genres interact

🔗 What is a genre system?

Genre system: the intersecting genres that facilitate a particular kind of work, often involving the intersection of multiple genre sets.

• Genres don't exist in isolation; they prompt and interact with other genres.
• Example: Job application process:
  1. Job description (genre 1)
  2. Prompts candidate to create resume (genre 2) and cover letter (genre 3)
  3. Candidate receives selection letter (genre 4)
  4. Candidate provides recommendation letters or documentation (genres 5, 6…)

🎯 Why understanding genre systems matters

• You may never use the term "genre system," but the idea is something all workplace writers are aware of.
• Knowing that your report may prompt follow-up documentation helps you craft writing that supports the organization's work.
• Key benefit: The more you anticipate different contexts and situations impacted by your writing, the more quickly you advance as a writing professional.
• You'll think critically about audience and connect writing choices to writing goals.