About Writing A Guide

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

College writing assignments require you to answer analytical "how" or "why" questions by taking a position and supporting it with evidence, rather than simply listing facts.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose varies by assignment: summarizing, analyzing, defending a position, or synthesizing sources into an original argument.
• How vs what questions: college assignments ask "how" or "why" questions that require analysis, not just factual lists.
• Implied questions: prompts may not explicitly state "how" or "why," but these questions are always implied in the language.
• Common confusion: a list of prompts does not mean you must answer all questions—they are idea starters for your own questions.
• Discipline matters: different fields expect different formats, evidence types, and citation styles.

🎯 Understanding assignment purpose

📝 Four main purposes

The excerpt identifies four types of tasks you may be asked to perform:

Purpose	What it means
Summarizing information	Condensing and restating key points
Analyzing ideas and concepts	Breaking down and examining components
Taking a position and defending it	Making a claim and supporting it with evidence
Combining ideas from several sources	Synthesizing multiple sources into an original argument

• The wording of the assignment should suggest which purpose applies.
• Always make sure you fully understand the assignment before starting.

🔍 Why purpose matters

• Different purposes require different approaches to research, organization, and evidence.
• Recognizing the purpose helps you focus your effort appropriately.

❓ Answering analytical questions

❓ How and why questions

College writing assignments ask you to answer a "how" or "why" question—questions that can't be answered with just facts.

• Factual questions need only a list of facts.
  • Example: "What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?" requires only a list.
• Analytical questions require you to take a position and support it with evidence.
  • Example: "Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?" requires argument and justification.

💡 Recognizing implied questions

• A prompt may not include a clear "how" or "why" question, but one is always implied by the language.
• Example 1: "Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs" is asking you to write how the act has affected special education programs.
• Example 2: "Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses" is asking you to write why the diagnoses of autism are on the rise.
• Don't confuse: the absence of explicit question words does not mean the assignment is asking for pure description—analysis is still expected.

📋 Understanding prompt lists

• Sometimes a list of prompts may appear with an assignment.
• Important: your instructor will not expect you to answer all of the questions listed.
• They are simply offering you ideas so that you can think of your own questions to ask.

🎓 Disciplinary expectations

🎓 What varies by discipline

Depending on the discipline in which you are writing, different features and formats of your writing may be expected.

• Different fields have different conventions for:
  • Writing features and formats
  • Types of evidence considered valid
  • Citation styles (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago)

🔑 How to identify expectations

• Always look closely at key terms and vocabulary in the writing assignment.
• Be sure to note:
  • What type of evidence your instructor expects
  • What citation style your instructor expects

✅ Assessing the writing situation

✅ Pre-writing checklist

Before beginning the writing process, always establish the following:

• Is there an assigned topic or are you free to choose your own?
  • Clarifies the scope of your decision-making.
• What about your subject interests you?
  • Helps you find a meaningful angle for engagement.
• Why is your subject worth reading about?
  • Ensures your topic has significance for your audience.
• Double check (the excerpt ends here, implying verification of all requirements).

🧭 Why this matters

• Assessing the situation upfront prevents wasted effort on the wrong approach.
• It ensures your writing aligns with both assignment requirements and your own interests.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

College writing assignments require you to answer analytical "how" or "why" questions that demand evidence-based arguments, not just factual lists, and you must recognize the implied question and disciplinary expectations before you begin.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose varies: assignments may ask you to summarize, analyze, argue a position, or synthesize sources into an original argument.
• How vs what questions: college assignments require answering "how" or "why" questions with evidence, not just listing facts.
• Implied questions: even when a prompt lacks an explicit question, one is always implied by the language (e.g., "discuss effects" means "how," "consider rise" means "why").
• Common confusion: prompts with multiple questions are brainstorming aids—you don't answer all of them; they help you generate your own question.
• Disciplinary expectations: different fields expect different formats, evidence types, and citation styles.

📝 What assignments ask you to do

📝 Four common purposes

The excerpt lists four types of tasks you might be assigned:

• Summarizing information: condensing and restating key points.
• Analyzing ideas and concepts: breaking down and examining components.
• Taking a position and defending it: making a claim and supporting it with evidence.
• Combining ideas from several sources and creating your own original argument: synthesizing multiple perspectives into a new thesis.

The wording of an assignment should suggest its purpose.

Why this matters: recognizing the purpose helps you choose the right approach and structure.

❓ Answering "how" and "why" questions

❓ What makes a college-level question

College writing assignments will ask you to answer a "how" or "why" question—questions that can't be answered with just facts.

• A factual question (e.g., "What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?") needs only a list.
• An analytical question (e.g., "Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?") requires you to take a position and support it with evidence.

Don't confuse: listing facts ≠ answering a college writing prompt. The excerpt emphasizes that college assignments demand interpretation and argument, not mere information retrieval.

🧩 Prompts with multiple questions

• Sometimes an assignment includes a list of prompts.
• Key point: your instructor does not expect you to answer all of them.
• They are "offering you some ideas so that you can think of your own questions to ask."

Example: if a prompt lists five questions, treat them as brainstorming tools to help you formulate one focused question of your own.

🔍 Recognizing implied questions

🔍 How to decode prompt language

A prompt may not include a clear "how" or "why" question, though one is always implied by the language of the prompt.

The excerpt provides two examples:

Prompt wording	Implied question type	What you should write
"Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs"	How	How the act has affected special education programs
"Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses"	Why	Why the diagnoses of autism are on the rise

🔍 Key verbs signal the question

• "Discuss the effects" → implies "how" (mechanism, process, impact).
• "Consider the rise" → implies "why" (causes, reasons, explanation).

Why this matters: even without a question mark, the assignment expects an analytical answer. Look for action verbs like "discuss," "consider," "examine," "evaluate" to identify the implied question.

🎓 Disciplinary expectations

🎓 What varies by field

Depending on the discipline in which you are writing, different features and formats of your writing may be expected.

• Different disciplines expect different evidence types (e.g., lab data vs. textual analysis vs. case studies).
• Different disciplines use different citation styles (the excerpt mentions this explicitly).
• Different disciplines may expect different formats (e.g., lab report vs. essay vs. research paper).

🎓 What to check

The excerpt advises:

• Look closely at key terms and vocabulary in the writing assignment.
• Note what type of evidence your instructor expects.
• Note what citation style your instructor expects.

Don't confuse: what works in one discipline may not work in another. Always check the assignment for discipline-specific requirements.

✅ Before you start writing

✅ Assess the writing situation

The excerpt lists a checklist to establish before beginning:

• Is there an assigned topic or are you free to choose your own?
• What about your subject interests you?
• Why is your subject worth reading about?
• Double check (the excerpt ends mid-sentence, but implies verifying all requirements).

Why this matters: answering these questions helps you focus your topic, find motivation, and ensure your argument will be meaningful to readers.

✅ Understand first, write second

Always make sure you fully understand an assignment before you start writing!

• The excerpt opens with this imperative.
• Understanding includes: purpose, question type (explicit or implied), disciplinary expectations, and the writing situation.

Example: if you misread "discuss effects" as asking for a list of effects rather than an analysis of how those effects occurred, your entire paper will miss the mark.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Before beginning any college writing assignment, writers must systematically assess the assignment's purpose, audience, evidence requirements, and constraints to ensure their work meets disciplinary and instructor expectations.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Understanding assignment purpose: College assignments expect summarizing, analyzing, taking positions, or synthesizing sources—not just listing facts.
• How vs why questions: Assignments require answering questions that need argument and evidence, not just factual lists; prompts may imply these questions even without explicit "how" or "why" wording.
• Pre-writing assessment checklist: Before writing, determine topic scope, purpose, audience, evidence sources, citation style, length, deadlines, and whether visuals are needed.
• Common confusion: Prompts with multiple questions are brainstorming aids—instructors do not expect you to answer all of them; choose your own focused question.
• Disciplinary differences: Different fields expect different features, formats, evidence types, and citation styles; always check key terms and vocabulary in the assignment.

📋 Understanding assignment expectations

📋 Four types of college writing tasks

The excerpt lists what instructors may expect:

• Summarizing information: condensing source material.
• Analyzing ideas and concepts: breaking down and examining components.
• Taking a position and defending it: making an argument with evidence.
• Combining ideas from several sources and creating your own original argument: synthesis and original contribution.

These are not just "write about a topic"—each requires a different approach and depth of engagement.

❓ How and why questions vs factual questions

• College assignments ask questions that cannot be answered with facts alone.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • Factual question: "What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?" → needs only a list.
  • Argument question: "Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?" → requires a position and supporting evidence.
• Don't confuse: a list of facts is not an argument; you must interpret and defend a claim.

🔍 Recognizing implied questions

Even when a prompt lacks explicit "how" or "why," one is always implied by the language:

Prompt wording	Implied question type	What you must write
"Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on special education programs"	How	How the act has affected special education programs
"Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses"	Why	Why autism diagnoses are on the rise

• The excerpt emphasizes: one is always implied by the language of the prompt.
• Look for action verbs like "discuss," "consider," "analyze"—they signal the type of question you need to answer.

💡 Multiple prompts are brainstorming aids

• Sometimes assignments list several questions.
• Your instructor will not expect you to answer all of them.
• They are offered "so that you can think of your own questions to ask."
• Choose one focused question that interests you and that you can support with evidence.

🎯 Pre-writing assessment checklist

🎯 Topic and scope

Before you start writing, establish:

• Is there an assigned topic or are you free to choose your own?
• What about your subject interests you?
• Why is your subject worth reading about?
• Double check that your subject is not too broad—narrow it down if necessary.

Example: If your subject is "education policy," that is too broad; narrow it to "effects of one specific policy on one specific group."

👥 Purpose and audience

• Determine the purpose of the work (summarize, analyze, argue, synthesize).
• Determine the readers of the work and their level of knowledge about the topic.
  • Audience knowledge affects how much background you need to provide and what terminology you can use.

📚 Evidence and sources

• Determine where your evidence will come from (textbooks, peer-reviewed articles, primary sources, etc.).
• Decide what kind of evidence would best serve your argument (statistics, case studies, expert testimony, etc.).
• Different disciplines value different evidence types—check assignment wording for clues.

📐 Format and constraints

• Identify the required style (MLA, APA, etc.) of the paper.
• Be aware of length specifications.
• Consider if visuals might be helpful in your paper.
• Decide what format your document will require (layout, margins, line spacing, font styles, etc.).
• Will someone be reviewing drafts of your paper? Who?
• Note your deadline and how much time you have for each stage of the writing process.

Don't confuse: citation style is not optional—each discipline has expectations; always check the assignment for the required style.

🧪 Testing and refining your thesis

🧪 Five thesis quality checks

Before you commit to a thesis, ask yourself:

1. Does your thesis take a position, propose a solution, or answer a question?
   • A thesis must do more than state a fact or topic.
2. Does your thesis give you enough material to write a full-length paper?
   • Too narrow → not enough to say; too broad → unfocused.
3. Can you come up with interpretations of your thesis that don't match your own?
   • If no one could disagree, it's not an argument—it's a fact.
4. Is there evidence to support your thesis?
   • You must be able to find sources and examples.
5. Will readers want to read an essay with this thesis?
   • Is it interesting, relevant, or important?

If the answer to any of these questions is 'no,' you need to revise your thesis.

🗂️ Organizing your work

🗂️ Constructing an outline

The excerpt provides a conventional outline structure:

• Put the thesis at the top.
• Make items at the same level have the same grammar/tenses (parallel structure).
• Use full sentences when possible (clearer than fragments).
• Use the conventional system of numbering: I., II., III. (major sections) → A., B., C. (subsections) → 1., 2., 3. (details) → a., b., c. (sub-details).
• Always include at least two items per level (if you have only one subpoint, it should be merged with the parent point).
• Use as few major sections (I., II., III., etc.) as possible.
• If the list gets too long, try clustering the items into broader categories with more subcategories.

Example structure:

• I. Thesis statement
  • A. First major point
    • 1. Supporting detail
    • 2. Supporting detail
  • B. Second major point
    • 1. Supporting detail
    • 2. Supporting detail

📄 Planning document design

For any document, determine:

• Purpose → design should support this purpose.
• Audience → identify their expectations.
• Format requirements (layout, margins, line spacing, font styles, etc.).
• Whether visuals will be helpful to include.

Don't confuse: design is not decoration—it should serve the document's purpose and audience needs.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A strong thesis must take a defensible position, provide sufficient material for a full paper, allow for alternative interpretations, be supported by evidence, and engage readers.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Five criteria for testing a thesis: position-taking, scope, interpretability, evidence availability, and reader interest.
• When to revise: if any of the five test questions receives a "no" answer, the thesis needs revision.
• Common confusion: a thesis is not just a topic or statement of fact—it must answer a "how" or "why" question and be arguable.
• Purpose of the test: to ensure the thesis is workable before investing time in drafting the full paper.

✅ The five-question thesis test

✅ Does it take a position?

A thesis must take a position, propose a solution, or answer a question.

• The thesis cannot be a simple statement of fact or a neutral observation.
• It must be something that can be argued or defended.
• Example: "Presidents exist" is not a thesis; "President X was the best in the last twenty years because..." takes a position.
• Don't confuse: a topic (what you're writing about) with a thesis (the specific claim you're making about that topic).

📏 Does it provide enough material?

The thesis must give you enough material to write a full-length paper.

• If the thesis is too narrow, you won't have enough to say.
• The excerpt emphasizes checking whether the thesis can sustain the required length.
• Example: "The sky is blue" might be provable but doesn't offer enough complexity for a full essay.

🔄 Can it be interpreted differently?

You must be able to come up with interpretations of your thesis that don't match your own.

• A good thesis is arguable—reasonable people could disagree with it.
• If everyone would automatically agree, there's nothing to defend.
• This criterion ensures the thesis is not self-evident or universally accepted.
• Example: if no one could reasonably argue against your claim, it's probably a fact rather than a thesis.

🔍 Is there supporting evidence?

There must be evidence available to support your thesis.

• Before committing to a thesis, verify that you can find sources, data, or examples to back it up.
• The excerpt links this to the earlier advice about determining "where your evidence will come from."
• Without evidence, even a well-positioned thesis cannot be defended.

👥 Will readers want to read it?

The thesis must be interesting enough that readers will want to read an essay about it.

• The thesis should address something worth reading about.
• This connects to the earlier point: "Why is your subject worth reading about?"
• A technically correct but boring thesis will not engage an audience.

🔧 When and how to revise

🔧 The revision trigger

• The excerpt is explicit: if the answer to any of these questions is 'no,' you need to revise your thesis.
• This is a binary checkpoint—one failure means revision is required.
• The test is meant to be applied before you begin drafting the full paper.

🔧 What revision means

• The excerpt does not detail specific revision strategies, but the implication is clear: adjust the thesis until all five criteria are met.
• Possible adjustments might include:
  • Narrowing or broadening the scope
  • Sharpening the position
  • Ensuring the claim is debatable
  • Confirming evidence exists
  • Making the claim more engaging

🧩 Context: understanding assignments

🧩 How vs. why questions

• The excerpt emphasizes that college writing assignments require answering "how" or "why" questions, not just listing facts.
• A thesis must respond to this type of question.
• Example contrast from the excerpt:
  • Fact-based question: "What are the names of the presidents of the US in the last twenty years?"
  • Thesis-worthy question: "Who was the best president of the last twenty years and why?"

🧩 Implied questions in prompts

• Even if a prompt does not explicitly include "how" or "why," one is always implied.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "Discuss the effects of the No Child Left Behind Act..." implies how the act affected programs.
  • "Consider the recent rise of autism diagnoses" implies why diagnoses are rising.
• A good thesis answers the implied question.

🧩 Assessing the writing situation

Before testing your thesis, the excerpt advises establishing:

• Topic constraints (assigned or free choice)
• Subject interest and significance
• Scope (not too broad)
• Purpose and audience
• Evidence sources and type
• Citation style, length, and deadline

These factors shape what kind of thesis will be appropriate and feasible.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A well-constructed outline organizes your paper hierarchically with parallel grammar and full sentences, ensuring every level contains at least two items and clusters ideas into the fewest major sections possible.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Thesis placement: the thesis statement goes at the top of the outline to anchor the entire structure.
• Parallel structure: items at the same hierarchical level must use the same grammar and tenses.
• Two-item minimum: every level of subdivision must contain at least two items; if you have only one sub-point, it should not be broken out.
• Clustering principle: use as few major sections (I., II., III.) as possible by grouping related items into broader categories with subcategories.
• Common confusion: don't create too many top-level sections—if the list gets long, reorganize by clustering items rather than adding more major headings.

📐 Structural rules

📐 Hierarchical numbering system

• Use the conventional numbering system:
  • Major sections: I., II., III., etc.
  • First-level subdivisions: A., B., C., etc.
  • Second-level subdivisions: 1., 2., 3., etc.
  • Third-level subdivisions: a., b., c., etc.
• This system makes the logical relationships between ideas visually clear.

🔝 Thesis at the top

The thesis statement must be placed at the top of the outline.

• The thesis anchors the entire outline.
• All subsequent sections and subsections should support or develop the thesis.
• Example: if your thesis is "Remote work increases productivity," your major sections might address evidence, counterarguments, and implications—all tied back to that central claim.

✌️ Two-item minimum rule

• Always include at least two items per level.
• If you have only one sub-point under a heading, it means that sub-point is not truly a subdivision—it should be merged with the parent item.
• Don't confuse: a single sub-point is not an error in content; it's a signal to restructure by either eliminating the subdivision or finding a second parallel item.

🔧 Formatting principles

🔧 Parallel grammar and tenses

Items at the same level must have the same grammar and tenses.

• Parallelism ensures clarity and readability.
• Example: if section A. begins with "Identify the audience," then section B. should also use an imperative verb form like "Determine the purpose," not a noun phrase like "Purpose of the document."
• Mixing grammatical structures at the same level creates confusion about the logical relationship between items.

📝 Full sentences when possible

• Use full sentences rather than fragments.
• Full sentences force you to articulate complete thoughts, making the outline more useful as a drafting tool.
• Example: instead of "Audience expectations," write "Identify your audience's expectations."

🗂️ Organization strategy

🗂️ Minimize major sections

• Use as few major sections (I., II., III., etc.) as possible.
• Too many top-level sections fragment the argument and make the paper feel disjointed.
• Example: instead of six major sections each covering a small point, try three major sections with two or three subsections each.

📦 Clustering into broader categories

• If the list gets too long, cluster items into broader categories with more subcategories.
• This principle keeps the outline manageable and highlights the main divisions of your argument.
• Don't confuse: clustering is not about hiding detail—it's about organizing detail under clear, broader headings so readers can follow the logic.
• Example: if you have five separate points about "audience," "purpose," "format," "visuals," and "deadlines," cluster them under a broader heading like "Planning considerations" with each as a subsection.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective document planning requires aligning purpose, audience expectations, and design choices—including format and visuals—before drafting begins.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose drives design: determine what the document should accomplish, then plan design elements to support that goal.
• Audience shapes format: identify who will read the document and what they expect in terms of layout, style, and content level.
• Visuals serve communication: decide whether images, charts, or tables will help convey information more effectively than text alone.
• Common confusion: format vs. design—format includes technical specs (margins, fonts, spacing), while design encompasses the overall structure that supports the document's purpose.

📋 Pre-writing decisions

🎯 Purpose and design alignment

• First step: determine your document's purpose (what you want it to achieve).
• Second step: plan the document's design to support that purpose.
• The excerpt emphasizes that design should follow from purpose, not the other way around.
• Example: a persuasive report might use bold headings and summary boxes to emphasize key arguments, while a reference manual might prioritize searchability and consistent formatting.

👥 Audience identification

• Identify who will read the document.
• Identify what expectations that audience brings (tone, depth, terminology).
• Example: an audience of experts expects technical language and detailed evidence; a general audience needs plain language and more context.

🎨 Format and visual choices

📐 Format specifications

Format: the technical layout requirements including margins, line spacing, font styles, and overall structure.

Decide on:

• Layout (how content is arranged on the page)
• Margins (white space around text)
• Line spacing (single, double, etc.)
• Font styles (typeface, size, weight)

Don't confuse: format with content—format is the container, not the message itself.

🖼️ Visual elements

• Decide whether visuals will be helpful to include in your document.
• If yes, determine what kind of visual would be most useful.
• The excerpt lists several visual types (see next section for details).
• Visuals should support communication, not decorate—each visual should have a clear purpose tied to the document's goal.

📊 Types of visuals and their uses

🥧 Pie chart

Pie charts: illustrate comparisons between a part and the whole, with segments representing percentages.

• Best for: showing how components make up 100% of something.
• Example: displaying what percentage of a budget goes to different categories.

📈 Line graph

Line graphs: emphasize a particular trend over time.

• Best for: showing change or movement across a time period.
• The visual form makes upward/downward trends immediately clear.

📊 Bar graph

Bar graphs: serve basically the same purpose as line graphs, emphasizing trends over a particular period of time.

• Similar to line graphs but use bars instead of connected points.
• Can be easier to read when comparing discrete time periods or categories.

🗂️ Table

Tables: visually organize complex numerical information, especially when you have a lot of data.

• Best for: presenting detailed data that readers may need to look up or compare.
• Example: a schedule showing multiple staff members across multiple days (as shown in the excerpt).
• Don't confuse tables with charts: tables preserve exact values; charts emphasize patterns or trends.

📷 Photograph

Photographs: depict people, situations, or ideas that might be discussed in your text.

• Best for: providing concrete visual evidence or context.
• Can make abstract concepts more tangible or humanize a topic.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Transition words and phrases guide readers through a text by signaling logical relationships between ideas, such as addition, contrast, time sequence, and cause-effect connections.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What transitions do: they connect ideas and show the relationship between sentences or paragraphs.
• Types of transitions: eight categories including addition, contrast, examples, time, place, logical relationships, comparison, and summary.
• How to choose: select transition words based on the logical relationship you want to express (e.g., "however" for contrast, "therefore" for conclusions).
• Common confusion: different transition types serve different purposes—"and" adds information while "however" signals a shift or contradiction.

📝 Eight categories of transitions

➕ Addition transitions

Addition transitions: words and phrases that signal you are adding more information to support or extend a point.

• Examples include: and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, too, first, second
• Use these when building on previous ideas or listing multiple points
• Example: "The study found benefits in reading comprehension. Furthermore, students showed improved writing skills."

🔄 Contrast transitions

Contrast transitions: words and phrases that signal a shift to an opposing or different idea.

• Examples include: but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still, even though, on the contrary, yet, although
• These help readers recognize when you're presenting a counterpoint or limitation
• Don't confuse with comparison transitions—contrast shows difference, while comparison shows similarity

🔗 Comparison transitions

Comparison transitions: words and phrases that highlight similarities between ideas.

• Examples include: also, similarly, likewise
• Use these to draw parallels or show how concepts relate
• Example: "Method A proved effective. Similarly, Method B achieved comparable results."

🎯 Purpose-driven transitions

📋 Example transitions

• For example, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, specifically
• These signal that you're about to provide concrete illustrations of an abstract point
• Help readers understand general claims through specific cases

🏁 Summary and conclusion transitions

• In other words, in short, in conclusion, to sum up, therefore
• Signal that you're wrapping up or restating key points
• Help readers recognize the end of a section or the main takeaway

⏰ Time transitions

• After, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, since, then, when, while, immediately
• Show chronological order or sequence of events
• Essential for narrative or process descriptions

🗺️ Spatial and logical transitions

📍 Place and direction transitions

• Above, below, beyond, farther on, nearby, opposite, close, to the left
• Help readers visualize physical relationships or navigate spatial descriptions
• Useful in descriptive or technical writing

🧠 Logical relationship transitions

Logical relationship transitions: words and phrases that show cause-effect or reasoning connections.

• If, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, because, since
• These make explicit the reasoning behind claims or the consequences of actions
• Example: "The deadline was missed. Consequently, the project was delayed."
• Don't confuse "because" (shows cause) with "therefore" (shows effect/conclusion)

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Different types of visuals—charts, graphs, tables, photographs, diagrams, flowcharts, and maps—serve distinct communication purposes, from showing part-whole relationships to illustrating processes or geographical data.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose-driven selection: each visual type serves a specific communication goal (comparisons, trends, processes, locations, etc.).
• Part vs. whole vs. trend: pie charts show proportions of a whole; line and bar graphs emphasize changes over time.
• Complexity and structure: tables organize complex numerical data; diagrams and flowcharts simplify processes and structures.
• Common confusion: line graphs vs. bar graphs—both show trends over time, but serve "basically the same purpose" with different visual styles.
• Context matters: photographs depict real situations; maps illustrate geography-dependent information; diagrams work best for technical/scientific content.

📊 Chart types for comparisons and trends

🥧 Pie charts

Pie charts are great for illustrating comparisons between a part and the whole.

• What they show: segments represent percentages of the whole.
• When to use: when you need to emphasize how individual parts contribute to a total.
• Example: showing causes of concussion as proportions of all concussion cases.

📈 Line graphs

Line graphs help you emphasize a particular trend over time.

• Purpose: highlight how something changes across a time period.
• The emphasis is on the trend itself—the pattern of change.
• Example: tracking the increase in textbook prices over multiple years.

📊 Bar graphs

Bar graphs serve basically the same purpose as line graphs, emphasizing trends over a particular period of time.

• Key similarity: like line graphs, they show change over time.
• Don't confuse: both line and bar graphs track trends; the choice is often stylistic or depends on the nature of the data.
• Example: displaying the same textbook price increases using vertical or horizontal bars instead of a continuous line.

🗂️ Organizing and depicting information

📋 Tables

Tables are a good way to visually organize complex numerical information, especially if you have a lot of data.

• Best for: situations with multiple variables or large datasets that need clear organization.
• Tables don't emphasize trends; they present raw information in structured rows and columns.
• Example: a weekly staff schedule showing multiple employees across seven days with varying shift times.

📷 Photographs

Photographs depict people, situations, or ideas that might be discussed in your text.

• Purpose: provide visual representation of real people, places, or concepts mentioned in writing.
• They add concrete imagery to abstract or descriptive text.

🔧 Technical and process visuals

🔬 Diagrams

Diagrams are used most often in scientific or technical writing because of their ability to convey complex processes and structures simply.

• Key strength: simplifying complexity—turning complicated processes or structures into understandable visuals.
• Context: particularly valuable in scientific or technical contexts.
• Example: a tugboat diagram showing the parts and structure of the vessel.

🔄 Flowcharts

Flowcharts are great for showing structure as well as steps in a linear process.

• Dual purpose: illustrate both organizational structure and sequential steps.
• The "flow" aspect emphasizes movement through a process or decision tree.
• Example: a decision tree determining whether a portrait photo can be reused, with yes/no branches leading to different outcomes.

🗺️ Location-based visuals

🌍 Maps

Maps are the perfect choice for illustrating geographical distances, demographics, or other data that is at least partially dependent on place.

• When to use: any information tied to physical location or geography.
• Versatility: can show distances, population data, or any place-dependent information.
• Example: the Oregon Trail route showing geographical distances and landmarks across states.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Active reading is a multi-pass strategy that asks you to identify structure and purpose first, notice what challenges your thinking during reading, and then re-read to deepen understanding and generate questions.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Three-stage process: familiarize yourself with structure and purpose before reading, mark attention-grabbing moments during reading, then re-read and question afterward.
• What to look for initially: text type, author's purpose and audience, main argument or question, evidence, and key terms.
• During reading focus: surprises, disagreements, inconsistencies, confusing elements, and challenges to your assumptions.
• Common confusion: active reading is not a single pass—the excerpt emphasizes reading again to catch what you missed and to formulate questions for the author.
• Visual texts need extra attention: consider first impressions, subject, colors/textures, composition, words/numbers, and creation date.

📖 Before you start reading

📖 Understand the text's framework

Start by surveying the basic structure before diving in:

• Identify the text type (essay, website, article, etc.)
• Find the author's purpose—every author has one
• Determine the intended audience and how the author appeals to them
• Locate the main argument or question the text addresses

🔍 Look for foundational elements

• Identify what evidence the author provides
• Note any key terms the author defines
• These elements give you a roadmap before you engage deeply with the content

👁️ During your first read

👁️ Mark what catches your attention

As you read, actively note moments that stand out:

• Facts or points that challenge your assumptions
• Surprises in the content
• Points or arguments you disagree with
• Inconsistencies within the text
• Words, phrases, or ideas you don't understand

💡 Why this matters

The excerpt emphasizes noticing your own reactions—these moments of surprise, confusion, or disagreement are entry points for deeper engagement with the material.

🔄 After finishing: read again

🔄 Second-pass goals

The excerpt explicitly instructs you to read the text a second time:

• Look for things you didn't notice the first time
• Identify open-ended questions the text leaves unanswered
• Imagine the author sitting across from you: what would you ask them about the text, and why?

🤔 Why re-reading is essential

Don't confuse active reading with a single careful pass—the excerpt treats re-reading as a core component, not optional. The second read reveals layers and gaps you missed initially.

🖼️ Special considerations for visual texts

🖼️ Additional questions for images

If the text is visual in nature, the excerpt provides extra tips:

Visual element	What to examine
First impression	What first strikes you about the image?
Subject	Who/what is the main subject?
Design	What colors/textures dominate?
Composition	What objects/people are in background/foreground?
Text elements	Do words or numbers play any role?
Context	When was the visual created?

🎨 Why visuals need different attention

Visual texts communicate through design choices, not just content—colors, composition, and timing all contribute to meaning in ways that written texts do not.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Analyzing a text—whether written or visual—requires examining its rhetorical situation through the lens of five core concepts: the text itself, the author, the audience, the purposes, and the setting.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What analysis involves: asking systematic questions about a text's thesis, structure, evidence, and how its parts interrelate.
• Visual vs written texts: visual analysis focuses on medium, design elements, and visual appeal, while written analysis emphasizes argument structure and evidence.
• Five rhetorical concepts: logos (text/format), ethos (author/credibility), pathos (audience), telos (purposes), and kairos (setting/timing).
• Common confusion: "author" and "audience" both have purposes—the author wants to achieve something, but the audience also has goals when receiving the text.
• Academic writing convention: use third-person point of view for analytical and research essays; first person appears occasionally when discussing personal research experiences.

📝 Analyzing written texts

📝 Core questions for essays and articles

When analyzing written work, the excerpt recommends asking:

• What is the central thesis or main idea?
• Who is the intended reader?
• How is the text organized and what are its key parts?
• How do those parts connect to each other and to the thesis?

🔍 Evaluating argument quality

The excerpt emphasizes examining:

• Evidence: What support does the author provide? Is it convincing?
• Interest generation: How does the author draw readers in?
• Persuasion techniques: How does the author convince readers their argument has merit?
• Counterarguments: Has the author anticipated opposing views and addressed them?
• Reasoning: Is the author's logic sound?

Example: An author might present statistical evidence to support a claim, but you should ask whether that evidence is sufficient and whether alternative explanations have been considered.

🖼️ Analyzing visual texts

🖼️ Initial observations

The excerpt suggests starting with immediate impressions:

• What first strikes you about the image?
• Who or what is the main subject?
• What colors and textures dominate?
• What appears in the foreground versus background?

🎨 Context and purpose questions

For visual work, examine:

• Medium and origin: In what format is the visual? Where is it from?
• Creator and timing: Who made it? When was it created?
• Purpose and audience: Why was it created? What clues suggest the intended audience?
• Design elements: How do colors, shapes, perspective, and background convey meaning?

📢 Special considerations for advertisements

If analyzing an ad:

• What product is being sold?
• Is there an additional message or idea beyond the product itself?
• How do any included words contribute to the meaning?

Don't confuse: A visual may sell a product while simultaneously promoting a broader concept or lifestyle.

🎭 The five rhetorical concepts

📄 Text (Logos)

The text in a rhetorical situation: any format of communication, including written documents, films, photographs, recordings, or oral histories.

• The key question is: what is gained by having this particular format or genre?
• Different formats communicate differently.
• Example: An oral history might convey emotion and personal voice that a written book version would not capture.

👤 Author (Ethos)

The author: the creator or communicator trying to effect change in their audience; may be a single person or an organization.

To understand the rhetorical situation, examine:

• The author's identity and background
• Their experience with the subject
• Biographical information: where and when they grew up
• How their perspective might be shaped by their background

👥 Audience (Pathos)

The audience: any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text and whom the text is trying to influence.

Consider:

• Who the intended audience is and their background
• The audience's assumptions about the author
• The context in which they receive the text
• Demographic information (age, gender, etc.)
• How all these factors affect how the text engages with them

🎯 Purposes (Telos)

Purposes: what the author hopes to achieve and what the audience wants from the text.

Both sides have purposes:

Author's possible purposes	Audience's possible purposes
Inform, convince, define, announce, activate	Receive notice, quantify, feel unity, disprove, understand, criticize

Don't confuse: Purpose is not one-directional—both author and audience bring goals to the communication, and these determine the decisions both groups make.

⏰ Setting (Kairos)

Setting: the specific time, context, and/or place in which the text was created and received.

• Nothing happens in a vacuum
• The setting affects how the text communicates its message
• Examine the setting of both audience and author
• Ask whether a particular occasion or event prompted the text at that particular time

Example: A text written during a crisis may have urgency and assumptions that differ from one written in stable times.

✍️ Academic writing conventions

✍️ Point of view in analytical writing

The excerpt describes standard practices:

Third-person point of view (most common):

• Used in analytical and research essays in the humanities
• Used by scientists and social scientists presenting quantitative research
• Example phrasing: "Achebe argues…" or "The results indicated…"

First-person point of view (occasional):

• Social scientists and humanities writers may use it when discussing their own research experiences
• May appear in personal narratives used as evidence
• Example context: "After spending a year living with the Upendi, I…"

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Understanding the five rhetorical concepts—text, author, audience, purposes, and setting—helps us analyze how any communication attempts to change someone's mind in a specific situation.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What a rhetorical situation is: any circumstance where one person tries to change another person's mind, usually through text.
• The five building blocks: logos (text), ethos (author), pathos (audience), telos (purposes), and kairos (setting).
• Text is broader than writing: it includes films, photographs, recordings, oral histories—any format that communicates.
• Both sides have purposes: the author wants something (to inform, convince, activate), and the audience also has goals (to understand, criticize, feel unity).
• Common confusion: "author" and "audience" are not always single individuals—an author can be an organization, and an audience can be a group.

📝 What is a rhetorical situation

📝 Definition and scope

A rhetorical situation: any set of circumstances in which one person is trying to change another person's mind about something, most often via text.

• The term is used by writing instructors to describe communication contexts.
• "Text" here means any medium: a book, blog post, journal article, film, photograph, or recording.
• The goal is always persuasion or influence, not just information transfer.

🔍 Why examine rhetorical concepts

• Breaking down a rhetorical situation into its five concepts (text, author, audience, purposes, setting) makes it easier to understand how communication works.
• These concepts come from the philosopher Aristotle, who named them logos, ethos, pathos, telos, and kairos.

📄 Text (Logos)

📄 What counts as text

• Text is not limited to written words.
• Examples from the excerpt: film, photograph, recording of a song or history.
• The key question: What is gained by having the text composed in this format/genre?

🎭 Format and genre matter

• Different formats communicate different things.
• Example: An oral history version of a text might communicate something that a book version would not.
• Ask yourself: What are the relevant characteristics of a book versus a song?
• The choice of medium shapes the message.

✍️ Author (Ethos)

✍️ Who the author is

The author: the creator, the person utilizing communication to try to effect a change in their audience.

• An author doesn't have to be a single person.
• An author could be an organization.
• The author is the one attempting to influence or persuade.

🧑 What to examine about the author

To understand the rhetorical situation, look at:

• Identity and background: Who are they?
• Experience in the subject: What expertise do they have?
• Biographical information: Where and when did they grow up? How could that affect their perspective on the topic?

👥 Audience (Pathos)

👥 Who the audience is

The audience: any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text, and also the person/people the text is trying to influence.

• The audience is not passive; they are the target of persuasion.

🎯 What to examine about the audience

To understand the rhetorical situation, consider:

• Who the intended audience is and their background.
• Assumptions the audience holds about the author.
• Context of reception: In what situation are they receiving the text?
• Demographic information: age, gender, etc.
• All of these factors affect how the text seeks to engage with them.

🎯 Purposes (Telos)

🎯 Author's purposes

What is the author hoping to achieve?

• To inform
• To convince
• To define
• To announce
• To activate

🎯 Audience's purposes

What does the audience want from the text? What may they do once the text is communicated?

• To receive notice
• To quantify
• To feel a sense of unity
• To disprove
• To understand
• To criticize

🔄 Both sides have goals

• Don't confuse: Purposes are not one-sided. Both author and audience have purposes.
• These purposes determine the "why" behind the decisions both groups make.
• Understanding both sets of purposes is essential to analyzing the rhetorical situation.

🌍 Setting (Kairos)

🌍 Context matters

Setting: the specific time, context, and/or place in which the text was written, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message.

• Nothing happens in a vacuum.
• The text was created in a particular moment and location.

🕰️ What to examine about the setting

To understand the rhetorical situation, examine:

• The setting of both audience and author: Where and when are they?
• Particular occasion or event: Was there something that prompted this text at this particular time?
• Example: A speech written during a crisis will communicate differently than one written in peacetime, even if the words are similar.

📚 Academic writing conventions

📚 Point of view in different disciplines

Discipline	Point of view	Example
Humanities (analytical/research essays)	Third person	Achebe argues… or Carter describes her experiences as…
Sciences (including social sciences)	Third person (quantitative research)	The results indicated…
Social sciences & humanities (personal research/narrative)	First person (occasionally)	After spending a year living with the Upendi, I came to the conclusion that…

🕐 Verb tense in different disciplines

Discipline	Verb tense	Example
Literature scholars	Present tense (discussing texts)	Humphrey's continual references to the color pink further emphasizes the imagery of the rose…
Scientists (including social scientists)	Past tense (experiments); present tense (results)	In 2013, Baker conducted the first of his experiments… His results are interesting, if inconclusive.
History writers	Present or present perfect tense (discussing texts)	Shirley Macintyre writes in her diary… or Shirley Macintyre has written…

✏️ Writing summaries

✏️ How to structure a summary

At the very beginning, mention:

• The title of the text
• The name of the author
• The central point or argument of the text

✏️ Summary guidelines

• Tone: Always maintain a neutral tone.
• Point of view: Use third person (e.g., Tompkins asserts…).
• Verb tense: Use present tense.
• Focus: Keep the focus on the text, not on what you think of it.
• Wording: Put as much of the summary as you can in your own words.
• Content: Present the text's main points only.
• Length: Be concise—every word counts.

🛡️ Countering opposing arguments

🛡️ Why anticipate objections

Almost anything you can argue or claim in a paper can be refuted.

• Opposing points of view and arguments exist in every debate.
• It's important to anticipate possible objections to your arguments.

🛡️ Questions to identify potential objections

Ask yourself:

• Could someone draw a different conclusion from the facts or examples you present?
• Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims?
• Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue?
• Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position?

🛡️ How to respond

If the answer to any of the above questions is yes, the next step is to respond to these potential objections. (The excerpt ends before providing the full response strategy.)

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Different academic disciplines follow distinct conventions for point of view and verb tense, with humanities and sciences each using specific grammatical choices to match their research methods and evidence types.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Point of view by discipline: humanities and sciences typically use third person; first person appears only in specific contexts like personal narrative or fieldwork reflection.
• Verb tense varies by field: literature scholars use present tense for texts, scientists use past tense for experiments (present for results), historians use present or present perfect for sources.
• Common confusion: don't mix tenses inappropriately—each discipline has a reason for its convention (e.g., literary texts are treated as "always happening," but experiments happened at a specific past time).
• Summary writing rules: always use third person, present tense, and neutral tone regardless of discipline.
• Evidence types differ: humanities rely on textual passages and primary sources; social sciences use field research and statistics; sciences depend on experimental data.

📝 Point of view conventions

📝 Third person as the default

Third-person point of view: referring to subjects as "he/she/they" or by name, not as "I/we."

• Analytical and research essays in humanities use third person exclusively.
• Example: "Achebe argues…" or "Carter describes her experiences as…"
• Scientists and social scientists also default to third person because they present quantitative findings.
• Example: "The results indicated…"

🙋 When first person appears

• First person is not the standard but appears in two specific situations:
  • Social scientists discussing their own fieldwork experiences.
  • Writers incorporating personal narrative as evidence.
• Example: "After spending a year living with the Upendi, I came to the conclusion that…"
• Example: "Every Christmas we went to the same place, as if our memories could be rekindled…"
• Don't confuse: first person is for lived experience or fieldwork reflection, not for general analysis.

⏰ Verb tense by discipline

📚 Literature: present tense

• Scholars of literature always use present tense when discussing texts.
• Rationale (implied): literary works are treated as existing in an ongoing present.
• Example: "Humphrey's continual references to the color pink further emphasizes the imagery of the rose…"

🔬 Sciences: past for experiments, present for results

• Use past tense to describe experiments that were conducted.
• Use present tense only when discussing the results or implications.
• Example: "In 2013, Baker conducted the first of his experiments… His results are interesting, if inconclusive."
• Don't confuse: the experiment is a completed event (past), but the results remain relevant (present).

📜 History: present or present perfect

• History writers use present tense or present perfect tense to discuss their sources.
• Example: "Shirley Macintyre writes in her diary that the fighting was fiercest on the ridge…"
• Example: "Shirley Macintyre has written that the fighting was fiercest on the ridge…"

📋 Summary writing guidelines

📋 Core requirements

All summaries must follow these rules regardless of the original text's discipline:

• Opening elements: mention title, author name, and central argument at the very beginning.
• Point of view: always use third person.
• Verb tense: always use present tense (e.g., "Tompkins asserts…").
• Tone: maintain neutral tone—focus on the text, not your opinion.

✍️ Writing approach

• Put as much as possible in your own words (paraphrase rather than quote extensively).
• Present main points only—be concise.
• Every word counts; avoid unnecessary elaboration.

🔍 Evidence types across disciplines

🔍 What counts as evidence

Different fields rely on different kinds of support for their arguments:

Discipline	Primary evidence types
Humanities: Literature, Art, Film, Music, Philosophy	Passages from texts/poetry; details from images or films; passages from musical compositions; critical essays analyzing original works
Humanities: History	Primary sources (photos, letters, maps, official documents); books/articles interpreting primary sources
Social Sciences: Psychology, Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology	Results from field research (interviews, surveys, observations); data from own experiments; statistics; books/articles interpreting others' studies
Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics	Data from own experiments; books/articles interpreting others' experimental data and results

🧪 Why evidence types matter

• The type of evidence shapes the grammatical conventions: experimental data (past events) uses past tense, while textual analysis (ongoing interpretation) uses present tense.
• Don't confuse: a literature scholar quoting a passage and a scientist citing experimental results are doing fundamentally different things, which is why their verb tenses differ.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Different academic disciplines follow distinct verb tense conventions—literature scholars use present tense for texts, scientists use past tense for experiments (present for results), and historians use present or present perfect for discussing sources.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Literature/humanities: always use present tense when discussing a text.
• Sciences (including social sciences): past tense for experiments, present tense only for results.
• History: present or present perfect tense when discussing texts/sources.
• Common confusion: don't mix tenses within a discipline—each field has its own convention for when the action "happens."
• Why it matters: using the wrong tense signals unfamiliarity with disciplinary conventions and can undermine credibility.

📚 Verb tense in literature and humanities

📖 Present tense for texts

Scholars of literature use the present tense to talk about a text.

• When analyzing literature, the text is treated as always "happening now."
• The action or argument in the text is described as if it is ongoing.
• Example: "Humphrey's continual references to the color pink further emphasizes the imagery of the rose…"
• Why present tense? The text exists in a continuous present for the reader; every time someone reads it, the events or arguments unfold again.

⚠️ Don't confuse with past events

• Even if the text describes historical events or was written centuries ago, you still use present tense to discuss what the text does or says.
• Example: You would write "Shakespeare explores themes of betrayal," not "Shakespeare explored."

🔬 Verb tense in the sciences

🧪 Past tense for experiments

Scientists (including social scientists) use the past tense to talk about experiments.

• Experiments are completed events that happened at a specific time in the past.
• Example: "In 2013, Baker conducted the first of his experiments…"
• Why past tense? The experiment is a finished action; it occurred once and is now over.

📊 Present tense for results

[Scientists] only use the present tense when discussing results of those experiments.

• Results and findings are treated as current knowledge that continues to exist.
• Example: "His results are interesting, if inconclusive."
• Don't confuse: the doing of the experiment (past) vs. the existence of the results (present).

Aspect	Tense	Example from excerpt
The experiment itself	Past	"Baker conducted the first of his experiments"
The results/findings	Present	"His results are interesting"

📜 Verb tense in history writing

🗂️ Present or present perfect for sources

History writers use present, or present perfect tense, to discuss their texts.

• Historians have two options when discussing primary or secondary sources.
• Present tense: "Shirley Macintyre writes in her diary that the fighting was fiercest on the ridge…"
• Present perfect tense: "Shirley Macintyre has written that the fighting was fiercest on the ridge…"

🔍 Why these tenses work

• The source (diary, document, book) continues to exist and "say" something to readers now.
• Present perfect emphasizes the connection between past writing and present relevance.
• Note: The events described in the source (e.g., "the fighting was fiercest") remain in past tense because they are historical events, not the act of writing about them.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A good summary presents the original text's central argument in your own words while maintaining neutrality and focusing on the author's main points rather than your own opinions.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Start with essential information: mention the title, author, and central argument at the very beginning.
• Maintain appropriate tone and perspective: use neutral tone, third-person point of view, and present tense.
• Focus on the text, not your reaction: keep attention on what the author says, not what you think about it.
• Common confusion: summaries should be in your own words as much as possible, not just copied phrases from the original.
• Be concise: present only main points—every word counts.

📝 Opening requirements

📝 What to include first

The excerpt emphasizes that "at the very beginning of your summary" you must provide three pieces of information:

• The title of the text being summarized
• The name of the author
• The central point or argument of the text

This front-loading ensures readers immediately understand what is being summarized and what the original author's main claim is.

✍️ Example structure

When you begin, you might write something like: "[Author name] argues in '[Title]' that [central point]..."

This opening framework gives readers the context they need before encountering any details.

🎯 Tone and perspective rules

🎯 Neutral and third-person

Always maintain a neutral tone and use the third-person point of view.

• "Neutral" means you are not expressing approval, disagreement, or emotional reactions.
• "Third-person" means referring to the author by name or as "the author," not using "I" or "you."
• Example: "Tompkins asserts..." rather than "I think Tompkins says..." or "You can see that Tompkins..."

⏰ Present tense requirement

The excerpt specifies using present tense when summarizing, giving the example "Tompkins asserts..."

• This follows the convention that written texts exist in an ongoing present.
• Don't confuse: this is about how you describe what the text does, not about the tense used inside the original text.

🔍 Content and focus

🔍 Keep focus on the text

Keep the focus of the summary on the text, not on what you think of it.

• The summary reports what the author says, not your evaluation of whether it's correct, interesting, or important.
• Your opinions and analysis belong in other parts of an essay, not in the summary itself.

🗣️ Use your own words

Try to put as most of the summary as you can in your own words.

• Paraphrase rather than quote extensively.
• This demonstrates comprehension and avoids simply copying the original.
• You are translating the author's ideas into your own phrasing while preserving their meaning.

✂️ Select main points only

Present the text's main points only and be concise! Every word counts.

• A summary is not a complete retelling—it extracts the essential arguments.
• Omit minor details, examples, and supporting evidence unless they are crucial to understanding the central claim.
• The emphasis on "every word counts" means ruthless editing: if a sentence doesn't convey a main point, cut it.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective academic writing requires anticipating and responding to objections by identifying potential counterarguments and using strategic techniques to address them within your paper.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why counterarguments matter: almost any claim can be refuted, so writers must anticipate objections to strengthen their arguments.
• How to identify objections: ask whether readers could draw different conclusions, question assumptions, offer alternative explanations, or cite contradictory evidence.
• How to respond: concede but challenge importance, explain why evidence should be questioned, show how your position addresses contradictions, or offer alternative interpretations.
• Common confusion: presenting objections vs. responding to them—you must both acknowledge the opposing view and explain why your position still holds.
• Signal phrases: alert readers that you're addressing an objection (e.g., "Critics argue that..." or "Some readers may point to...").

🔍 Identifying potential objections

🔍 Four key questions to find weaknesses

The excerpt provides a diagnostic framework—ask yourself these questions about your argument:

• Could someone draw a different conclusion from the facts or examples you present?
• Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims?
• Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue?
• Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position?

If the answer to any of these is yes, you have identified a potential objection that needs addressing.

🎯 Why this matters

• The excerpt emphasizes that "almost anything you can argue or claim in a paper can be refuted."
• Opposing points of view exist "in every debate."
• Anticipating objections is not optional—it's "important" to do so.
• Example: if you argue that a policy is effective based on certain data, a reader might point to different data showing the policy failed elsewhere, or might interpret your data differently.

🛡️ Responding to objections

🛡️ Four response strategies

Once you've identified potential objections, the excerpt offers a second set of questions to guide your response:

Strategy	What it means	When to use it
Concede but challenge	Accept the opposing point but question its importance or usefulness	When the objection is valid but doesn't undermine your main claim
Question the evidence	Explain why a reader should doubt a piece of evidence or consider a different viewpoint	When the opposing evidence is weak, outdated, or context-dependent
Address contradictions	Show how your position responds to contradicting evidence	When there is legitimate conflicting data that needs reconciliation
Reinterpret evidence	Offer a different interpretation of the same evidence	When the facts are agreed upon but their meaning is disputed

💡 The logic of response

• You are not ignoring objections; you are engaging with them.
• Each strategy acknowledges the objection exists but provides a reason why your argument still stands.
• Example: "Critics argue that the program is too expensive (objection acknowledged), but the long-term savings outweigh initial costs (response that challenges importance)."

📝 Presenting counterarguments in your paper

📝 Signal phrases

Signal phrases: words or phrases that alert readers you're about to present an objection.

The excerpt recommends placing these "at the beginning of a paragraph" to clearly mark the shift to addressing opposition.

Examples provided:

• "Researchers have challenged these claims with…"
• "Critics argue that this view…"
• "Some readers may point to…"

🧩 Structure and tone

• Placement: "usually best to put this phrase at the beginning of a paragraph."
• Purpose: these phrases create a clear boundary—readers know you are now discussing an opposing view, not your own position.
• Don't confuse: a signal phrase introduces the objection; your response (using one of the four strategies above) must follow in the same or next paragraph.
• Example structure: "Some readers may point to evidence that contradicts this claim [signal phrase + objection]. However, this evidence reflects only short-term effects, whereas the long-term data supports the original position [response]."

⚠️ Maintaining focus

• The excerpt does not say to agree with objections, only to anticipate and address them.
• Your goal is to show readers you have considered alternative views and can explain why your argument remains stronger or more complete.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Inductive reasoning can be validated by asking three simple questions about whether your evidence is sufficient, representative, and relevant to support your broad conclusion.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What inductive reasoning is: making specific observations and then drawing broad conclusions based on those observations.
• Why it matters: it's a way to reach a probable conclusion that can be tested.
• The three-question test: sufficient evidence, representative characteristics, and relevance to topic.
• Common confusion: inductive reasoning produces probable conclusions, not absolute certainty—it moves from specific to general.

🔍 What inductive reasoning means

🔍 Definition and process

Inductive reasoning: a way of thinking that makes sense of things by making specific observations and then drawing broad conclusions based on those observations.

• You start with specific observations (particular cases, examples, data points).
• You then draw broad conclusions that generalize beyond those specific cases.
• The result is a probable conclusion, not a guaranteed one.

🎯 Purpose

• It's described as "a great way to come to a probable conclusion."
• The excerpt emphasizes that this type of reasoning can be tested and validated.

✅ The three validation questions

✅ Question 1: Is the evidence sufficient?

• You need enough observations or data points to support a generalization.
• Don't confuse: "sufficient" doesn't mean "all possible evidence"—it means enough to make the conclusion probable.
• Example: If you observe only two instances, that may not be sufficient to draw a broad conclusion about all cases.

✅ Question 2: Does the evidence reflect the characteristics of all the individuals involved?

• Your specific observations must be representative of the whole group you're generalizing about.
• If your evidence only captures one type of case or a biased sample, your broad conclusion may not hold.
• Example: Observing behavior in one specific context and concluding it applies to all contexts would fail this test.

✅ Question 3: Is the evidence relevant to your topic?

• The observations you're using must actually connect to the conclusion you're drawing.
• Evidence can be sufficient and representative but still not support your specific claim if it's not relevant.
• Don't confuse: relevant means "directly related to the conclusion," not just "interesting" or "related to the general subject area."

🧪 How to apply the test

🧪 Testing your argument

The excerpt presents these three questions as a practical tool:

• Ask them "of the evidence you're using to back up your conclusion."
• They help "see if your argument is supported by inductive reasoning."
• All three questions should be answered affirmatively for strong inductive reasoning.

🧪 Relationship between the questions

Question	What it checks	Why it matters
Sufficient?	Quantity of evidence	Too little evidence = weak generalization
Representative?	Quality/diversity of evidence	Biased sample = misleading conclusion
Relevant?	Connection to conclusion	Unrelated evidence = unsupported claim

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Different academic disciplines rely on distinct types of evidence to support their arguments, ranging from textual analysis in the humanities to experimental data in the sciences.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Discipline-specific evidence: Each field has characteristic evidence types that reflect its methods and goals.
• Humanities split: Literature/arts use creative works and critical essays; history relies on primary sources and interpretive scholarship.
• Social sciences blend: Psychology, sociology, and related fields combine original research (surveys, experiments) with interpretation of others' work.
• Sciences prioritize experiments: Biology, chemistry, and physics center on original experimental data, supplemented by interpretive articles.
• Common confusion: Don't assume all "humanities" use the same evidence—literature scholars analyze texts and artworks, while historians work with documents and artifacts.

📚 Humanities evidence types

🎨 Literature, art, film, music, philosophy

These fields analyze creative and intellectual works directly:

• Critical essays: Scholarly analyses of original works (books, films, compositions, philosophical texts).
• Details from works: Specific elements extracted from images, films, or other art forms.
• Musical passages: Sections of compositions used as evidence.
• Text passages: Excerpts from written works, including poetry.

The evidence consists of the creative work itself and scholarly interpretations of it.

Example: A literature scholar might quote a poem's stanza to support a claim about the author's use of imagery.

📜 History

Historical research uses a different evidence base:

• Primary sources: Original materials from the period being studied—photos, letters, maps, official documents.
• Interpretive scholarship: Books or articles that analyze primary sources or other historical evidence.

Don't confuse: Primary sources (the raw historical material) vs. secondary sources (scholars' interpretations of that material). Historians need both, but primary sources are the foundation.

🔬 Social sciences evidence types

👥 Psychology, sociology, political science, anthropology

These disciplines combine multiple evidence streams:

Evidence type	What it includes	Purpose
Interpretive scholarship	Books/articles analyzing others' studies	Build on existing research
Field research	Interviews, surveys, observations	Gather original qualitative data
Experimental data	Results from researchers' own experiments	Test hypotheses directly
Statistics	Numerical data and analysis	Quantify patterns and relationships

• Social scientists both generate new data (through their own studies) and interpret existing data (from others' work).
• Field research methods vary: interviews for depth, surveys for breadth, observations for natural behavior.

Example: A sociologist might conduct surveys about workplace attitudes, then compare findings with statistics from previous studies.

🧪 Natural sciences evidence types

🔬 Biology, chemistry, physics

The sciences prioritize original experimental work:

• Primary evidence: Data from the researchers' own experiments.
• Secondary evidence: Books or articles interpreting data and results from others' experiments or studies.

Key distinction: The excerpt lists experimental data first for sciences, signaling its central importance. Interpretive scholarship comes second, supporting rather than leading the research.

Don't confuse: While both social sciences and natural sciences use experimental data, the natural sciences place even stronger emphasis on original experiments as the primary evidence type.

Example: A chemist reports reaction rates from lab experiments, then discusses how these results relate to findings published by other research teams.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Keyword searching becomes more effective when you use specific operators like quotation marks, AND/OR, NOT, and wildcards to refine and control your search results.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Phrase searching: quotation marks retrieve exact phrases rather than scattered individual words.
• Combining terms: AND (or +) narrows results to include multiple required terms; NOT (or -) excludes unwanted terms.
• Wildcard expansion: the asterisk (*) retrieves variations of a root word to broaden coverage.
• Common confusion: using operators vs. natural language—search engines respond to symbols differently than to plain sentences.
• Why it matters: these techniques help you get more relevant results and avoid irrelevant or incomplete searches.

🔍 Search operators for precision

🔍 Exact phrase matching with quotation marks

Putting a phrase in quotation marks retrieves results for that exact phrase.

• Without quotes, a search engine treats each word separately and may return pages where the words appear far apart.
• With quotes, the engine looks for the words in that exact order, side by side.
• Example: searching "textbook affordability" will only return pages containing that precise phrase, not pages with "textbook" on one paragraph and "affordability" elsewhere.

🔗 Connecting related terms with AND

Use AND (or +) to connect two terms that must both appear in the results.

• This operator narrows your search by requiring both keywords.
• Example: education AND racism or education + racism will only bring up results that include both "education" and "racism."
• Don't confuse: AND makes searches more restrictive, not broader—it adds a requirement rather than alternatives.

🚫 Excluding unwanted terms with NOT

Use NOT (or -) in front of a keyword to exclude results containing that term.

• This operator filters out topics you want to avoid.
• Example: articles NOT magazines or articles – magazines will bring up results about articles but exclude any that also mention magazines.
• Useful when a term has multiple meanings or associations and you want to focus on only one.

🌟 Expanding search coverage

🌟 Wildcard for word variations

Use an asterisk (*) at the end of a word root to retrieve any variation of that word.

• The wildcard stands in for any letters that might follow the root.
• Example: smok* will bring up results that include "smoke," "smoking," and "smokers."
• This technique helps you capture all related forms without running separate searches for each variation.
• Particularly useful when you want comprehensive coverage of a topic and don't want to miss results due to different word endings.

📊 When to use each technique

Technique	Operator	Purpose	Effect on results
Exact phrase	"phrase"	Find words in exact order	Narrows to precise matches
Require both terms	AND or +	Both keywords must appear	Narrows by adding requirement
Exclude term	NOT or -	Remove unwanted associations	Narrows by filtering out
Word variations	*	Capture all forms of a root	Broadens within a word family

📊 Choosing the right approach

• If your results are too broad or off-topic, use quotation marks or NOT to narrow.
• If your results are too sparse, use the wildcard to catch variations you might have missed.
• If you're researching a connection between two concepts, use AND to ensure both appear.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A source qualifies as scholarly when it is produced by field experts, reviewed by peers, formally presented, and includes original analysis with documented evidence and research methods.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What makes a source scholarly: expert authorship, peer review, formal presentation, original analysis, and methodological transparency.
• Six key criteria: formal language, academic author credentials, bibliography, original work (not just summary), primary source evidence, and research methods description.
• Common confusion: not all published material is scholarly—commercial, advocacy, or summary-only sources lack the peer review and original analysis required.
• Why it matters: scholarly sources provide reliable, vetted information appropriate for academic research and evidence-based arguments.

📋 The six scholarly criteria

📝 Formal presentation and language

• The source must be written and presented in a formal manner.
• This distinguishes scholarly work from casual blog posts, opinion pieces, or popular media.
• Example: academic journal articles use formal tone and structure, while magazine articles may use conversational language.

👨‍🎓 Expert authorship

The author(s) must have an academic background (scientist, professor, etc.).

• Credentials matter: the author should be a recognized expert in the field.
• Look for titles like professor, researcher, or scientist.
• Don't confuse: a well-written piece by a non-expert is not scholarly, even if it sounds authoritative.

📚 Documentation and bibliography

• The source must include a bibliography documenting all works cited.
• This allows readers to trace claims back to their origins and verify evidence.
• Scholarly work builds transparently on previous research.

🔬 Original work requirements

🆕 Original analysis vs. summary

• The source must include original work and analysis, not just summarize existing information.
• Scholarly sources contribute new insights, interpretations, or findings to the field.
• Example: a literature review that synthesizes and critiques existing studies with new conclusions counts; a simple summary of others' work does not.

🔍 Primary source evidence

• The source must include evidence from primary sources.
• Primary sources are original materials (data, documents, artifacts) rather than secondhand accounts.
• This grounds scholarly work in direct evidence rather than hearsay.

🧪 Research methods transparency

• The source must include a description of the author(s)' research methods.
• Readers need to understand how conclusions were reached.
• Methodological transparency allows others to evaluate the validity of findings and potentially replicate the research.

🎯 Distinguishing scholarly from non-scholarly

Feature	Scholarly source	Non-scholarly source
Author	Academic expert with credentials	May be journalist, blogger, or unnamed
Review process	Peer-reviewed by other experts	Edited for style/grammar only
Audience	Other experts and researchers in the field	General public or consumers
Purpose	Advance knowledge in the field	Inform, entertain, or persuade general readers
Evidence	Primary sources, original data, documented citations	May lack citations or rely on secondary sources

⚠️ Common confusion

• A well-researched popular article is not the same as a scholarly source, even if it cites experts.
• The key difference: scholarly sources are produced by experts for experts and undergo peer review by other specialists in the field.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Evaluating sources requires checking for scholarly credentials, identifying bias and argument quality, verifying web-specific markers like authorship and sponsorship, and gathering complete citation information to avoid plagiarism.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Search techniques: use quotation marks for phrases, AND/+ to combine terms, NOT/- to exclude terms, and * for word variations to refine results.
• Scholarly vs non-scholarly: scholarly sources are written by experts, peer-reviewed, include bibliographies and original analysis, and describe research methods.
• Bias and argument quality: check author/publisher affiliations for special interests, assess whether claims are supported by evidence or emotion, and verify that opposing views are addressed.
• Web source credibility: identify the author's qualifications, determine the sponsor (via copyright info or URL domain), understand the site's purpose, and check currency/relevance.
• Common confusion: a .org domain does not automatically mean unbiased—nonprofits can still represent special-interest groups with particular viewpoints.

🔍 Search strategies

🔍 Phrase and combination searches

• Exact phrases: Put terms in quotation marks to search for that exact sequence.
  • Example: "textbook affordability" returns only results with those two words together in that order.
• Combining terms: Use AND (or +) to require both keywords.
  • Example: education AND racism returns only pages mentioning both topics.
• Excluding terms: Use NOT (or -) to filter out unwanted keywords.
  • Example: articles NOT magazines excludes results that also mention magazines.

🌟 Wildcard searches

• Use * at the end of a root word to capture all variations.
• Example: smok* retrieves smoke, smoking, smokers, etc.
• Why it matters: broadens results when you want comprehensive coverage of a topic.

📚 Identifying scholarly sources

📚 What makes a source scholarly

A scholarly source is material produced by an expert in their field, reviewed by other experts in that field, and published for an audience highly involved in that field.

Checklist for scholarly sources:

• Written with formal language and presented formally
• Author(s) have an academic background (scientist, professor, etc.)
• Includes a bibliography documenting cited works
• Includes original work and analysis, not just summary
• Includes evidence from primary sources
• Describes the author(s)' research methods

🔬 Why these markers matter

• Peer review: other experts have vetted the claims before publication.
• Bibliography: allows you to trace the evidence and verify claims.
• Original analysis: distinguishes research from opinion or reporting.
• Don't confuse: a formal tone alone does not make a source scholarly—check for the full set of criteria.

🧐 Evaluating bias and arguments

🧐 Checking for bias

• Background check: investigate the author and publisher.
  • Do they support a particular political or religious view?
  • Are they associated with a special-interest group (e.g., American Library Association, Keep America Safe)?
• What to look for: bias is indicated unless alternative views are presented and addressed with appropriate respect.
• Example: An organization advocating for a single policy position may present only supporting evidence.

🧐 Assessing the argument

Steps to evaluate the author's reasoning:

1. Identify the main claim: What is the author arguing is true or untrue?
2. Examine the support: Does the author use relevant evidence or just emotional examples?
3. Check statistics: Are they used consistently and fairly, with an explanation of their source?
4. Look for logical fallacies: Does the reasoning hold up?
5. Consider opposing viewpoints: Does the author acknowledge and address counterarguments?

Element	What to check	Red flag
Evidence	Relevant data vs emotional appeals	Only anecdotes, no data
Statistics	Source and fair use	No explanation of origin
Logic	Sound reasoning	Logical fallacies present
Counterarguments	Opposing views addressed	Ignores alternative perspectives

🌐 Evaluating web sources

👤 Author credentials

• Where to find: Most reputable sites list an author; check the home page or "About Us"/"About This Site" link.
• What to verify: the author's background in the area they are writing about.
• If qualifications are not listed on the site, search author sites or other sources.
• Don't confuse: a name alone is not enough—you need to verify expertise.

💼 Sponsorship and domain clues

• Sponsor: the person or organization funding the site, often listed with copyright date or author information.
• URL domain indicators:

Domain	Meaning
.com	Commercial site
.edu	Educational institution
.org	Nonprofit organization
.gov	Government sponsor
.mil	Military sponsor
.net	Network of sponsors
Country codes	.uk (United Kingdom), .de (Germany), etc.

• Why it matters: domain type hints at the site's purpose and potential biases.

🎯 Purpose and relevance

• Purpose: Determine why the site was created and who it was meant to inform.
  • Example: Is it selling products, or persuading voters on an issue?
• Relevance (currency): Check the bottom of the page for publication date or latest update.
  • Most links should still work; broken links may signal the site is too out of date.
• Don't confuse: a .org site can still have a persuasive purpose if it represents a special-interest group.

📝 Citation information requirements

📝 For books

Required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/translators
• Edition (if not first)
• Name, date, and city of publication/publisher

📝 For articles

Required elements:

• Author(s)
• Title and subtitle
• Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Volume, issue, and page numbers

If retrieved from a database, also include:

• Name of database
• Name of subscription service
• URL of database
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
• Date source retrieved

📝 For web sources

Required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/Creators
• Title of source
• Title of site
• Publication information
• Date of publication or latest update
• Site sponsor
• Date source accessed
• Source URL

🚫 Avoiding plagiarism

🚫 Direct quotations

Using something word-for-word from another source.

How to attribute:

• Put quotation marks around the excerpt.
• Use a signal phrase.
• Include a parenthetical citation with the page number.

Example:

• McGuffin and Cross have said, "No one should ever eat cake without frosting" (22).
• Or: Cake, according to McGuffin and Cross, is one of those foods that should never be eaten "without frosting" (22).

🚫 Modified quotations

Using something word-for-word but changing word forms or adding words to improve clarity and flow.

How to attribute:

• Put quotation marks around the excerpt.
• Put brackets around the segments you have changed.
• Include a signal phrase and a parenthetical citation with the page number.

Example:

• McGuffin and Cross seem to think that "…eat[ing] cake without frosting" should never be allowed (22).

🚫 Paraphrasing and summarizing

Using the author's ideas without using the author's exact words.

• The excerpt mentions this category but does not provide the attribution method in the visible text.
• Note: The chart follows MLA style; other styles (APA, CMS) have different requirements (referenced but not detailed in this excerpt).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Evaluating sources requires checking the author's credibility, the sponsor's identity and motives, the site's purpose and currency, and the logical strength of the argument itself.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Author credibility: reputable sites list authors and their qualifications; you should verify background in the topic area.
• Sponsorship and URL clues: the sponsor (who pays for the site) and domain extensions (.com, .edu, .org, .gov, .mil, .net, country codes) reveal the site's nature and origin.
• Purpose and bias: determine why the site exists (to sell, persuade, inform) and whether alternative views are presented respectfully.
• Currency matters: check publication/update dates and whether links still work—outdated sites may be unreliable.
• Argument quality: identify the main claim, look for relevant evidence vs. emotional examples, check for logical fallacies, and ensure opposing viewpoints are considered.

🔍 Assessing the argument

🎯 Identify the main claim

• Determine what the author argues is true or untrue.
• This is the foundation for evaluating everything else in the source.

📊 Evidence vs. emotion

• Pay attention to what supports the claim.
• Ask: does the author provide relevant evidence, or just emotional examples?
• Statistics: should be used consistently and fairly, with clear explanation of their origin.
• Example: an article claiming "most people agree" without data is weaker than one citing a specific survey with methodology.

🧩 Logical fallacies and opposing views

• Check for logical fallacies in the reasoning.
• Make sure the author considers opposing viewpoints.
• Bias indicator: lack of alternative views, unless those views are presented and addressed with appropriate respect.

👤 Evaluating the author

🔎 Finding author information

• Most reputable websites list or cite an author.
• You might need to dig deeper than the section you're reading—check the home page or "About Us"/"About This Site" links.

🎓 Checking qualifications

• Once you find the author's name, investigate their background in the area they are writing about.
• If qualifications aren't listed on the site itself, search on author sites or in other sources.
• Why it matters: an author's expertise directly affects the reliability of the information.

🏢 Understanding sponsorship and purpose

💰 Who sponsors the site

• The sponsor (the person or organization footing the bill) is often listed with the copyright date or author information.
• If no explicit sponsor is listed, check the URL for clues.

🌐 URL domain extensions

Extension	What it indicates
.com	Commercial site
.edu	Educational institution
.org	Nonprofit organization
.gov	Government sponsor
.mil	Military sponsor
.net	Network of sponsors
Country codes (.uk, .de, etc.)	Geographic origin

🎯 Determining purpose

• Ask: why was this site created and who was it meant to inform?
• Example: is it selling products, or persuading voters on a particular issue?
• Don't confuse: a site's stated purpose with its actual purpose—a commercial site may present itself as informational.

⏰ Checking relevance and currency

📅 Publication and update dates

• Depending on your information needs, the currency of the site could be vital.
• Check the bottom of the webpage for the date of publication or latest update.

🔗 Link functionality

• Most links on the site should still work.
• If many links no longer work, that may be a sign the site is too out of date to be useful.
• Example: a technology article from 2005 with broken links is likely not current enough for most research purposes.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Different citation styles (MLA, APA, CMS) require specific pieces of information about sources—such as author, title, publication details, and retrieval information—to create complete and accurate citations.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What information is needed: author, title, publication details, and (for digital sources) database name, URL, DOI, and access date.
• Different sources need different details: books require edition and publisher city; articles need volume/issue/page numbers; web sources need access date and sponsor.
• Citation styles vary by discipline: MLA (arts/humanities), APA (social sciences), and CMS (publishing) each have different formatting requirements.
• Common confusion: using synonyms instead of exact words is still plagiarism, even with a signal phrase and citation—you must either quote directly or fully paraphrase.
• Why it matters: proper citation information allows readers to locate your sources and distinguishes your ideas from borrowed material.

📚 Required information by source type

📖 Books

The excerpt lists the following required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/translators
• Edition (if not the first edition)
• Name, date, and city of publication/publisher

These elements identify the specific version of a book and where it was published.

Don't confuse: "date of publication" (when the book was published) with "date accessed" (when you retrieved it), which is only needed for online sources.

📰 Articles

The excerpt specifies these core elements:

• Author(s)
• Title and Subtitle
• Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Volume, issue, and page numbers

If retrieved from a database, you must also include:

• Name of database
• Name of subscription service
• URL of database
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
• Date source retrieved

Why the extra information: database-retrieved articles need additional details so readers can trace the path back to the same version you used.

🌐 Web sources

The excerpt lists these required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/Creators
• Title of source
• Title of site
• Publication information
• Date of publication or latest update
• Site sponsor
• Date source accessed
• Source URL

Key difference from print: web sources require both the date of publication/update and the date you accessed it, because web content can change or disappear.

🎨 Citation style systems

📐 MLA (Modern Language Association)

A style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the arts and humanities.

• The excerpt notes that MLA is the primary style for arts and humanities disciplines.
• The excerpt's plagiarism chart explicitly follows MLA style.

🧠 APA (American Psychological Association)

A style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the social sciences.

• Named after the professional guild that developed it.
• The excerpt indicates it is the standard for social sciences.

📘 CMS (Chicago Manual of Style)

A style of formatting written works that is most widely used in publishing.

• The excerpt distinguishes CMS as broader than academic writing—it is used in publishing generally.

Style	Primary discipline	Named after
MLA	Arts and humanities	Modern Language Association
APA	Social sciences	American Psychological Association
CMS	Publishing (general)	Chicago Manual of Style

Don't confuse: these are not interchangeable—each discipline expects its own style, and "different information may be required for each of these sources" depending on which style you use.

🚫 Avoiding plagiarism through proper attribution

💬 Direct quotations

The excerpt provides clear rules for word-for-word use:

• Put quotation marks around the excerpt.
• Use a signal phrase to introduce it.
• Include a parenthetical citation with the page number.

Example from the excerpt:

McGuffin and Cross have said, "No one should ever eat cake without frosting" (22).

If you change word forms or add words for clarity:

• Put brackets around the segments you changed.
• Still use quotation marks, signal phrase, and citation.

Example from the excerpt:

McGuffin and Cross seem to think that "…eat[ing] cake without frosting" should never be allowed (22).

✍️ Paraphrasing and summarizing

When you restate the author's ideas without using their exact words:

• Use a signal phrase to introduce the idea.
• Include a parenthetical citation with the page number.
• Do not use quotation marks (because these are not the author's exact words).

Example from the excerpt:

According to McGuffin and Cross, cake is one of those special foods that require an additive to be properly enjoyed, like frosting (22).

Critical warning from the excerpt:

Using something from a source but substituting in some synonyms? DON'T. This is plagiarism, even if you use a signal phrase and include a parenthetical citation.

Why this matters: simply swapping in synonyms is not true paraphrasing—you must fully rewrite the idea in your own sentence structure and wording.

📊 Statistics and facts

The excerpt specifies:

• Any facts that are not common knowledge must have a parenthetical citation.
• Use a signal phrase to help your reader understand why the facts are being cited, unless it is clear enough without one.

Don't confuse: "common knowledge" (no citation needed) with specialized facts or statistics (citation required).

✅ Citation checklist requirements

📝 For quotations

The excerpt lists five requirements:

1. All quoted material should be enclosed in quotation marks unless set off from the rest of the text.
2. Quoted material should be accurate word-for-word. If anything was changed, brackets or ellipsis marks should indicate where the changes/omissions took place.
3. A clear signal phrase should alert your readers for each quotation and tell them why the quotation is there.
4. A parenthetical citation should follow each quotation.
5. Each quotation must be put in context.

Why context matters: readers need to understand how the quotation supports your argument, not just see it dropped into the text.

📋 For summaries (paraphrasing)

The excerpt lists three requirements:

1. Any summaries of the text should not include plagiarized wording.
2. Summaries must be followed by parenthetical citations.
3. A signal phrase should let your readers know where the summarized material begins as well as tell them why the summary is included in your paper.

Key principle: even when you fully rewrite an idea, you must still cite the source—the citation acknowledges the idea came from someone else, not just the words.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Proper attribution through quotation marks, signal phrases, and citations is required for all borrowed material—whether quoted, paraphrased, or summarized—to avoid plagiarism.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core rule: every use of another source's words or ideas must be attributed with signal phrases and parenthetical citations.
• Quotation vs paraphrase: direct quotes need quotation marks; paraphrases restate ideas in your own words but still need citations.
• Common confusion: substituting synonyms into someone else's sentence structure is still plagiarism, even with a citation—you must fully rewrite in your own words.
• Three attribution elements: signal phrase (introduces the source), quotation marks (if word-for-word), and parenthetical citation (page number).
• What counts as plagiarism: using exact wording without quotes, swapping in synonyms, or omitting citations for non-common-knowledge facts.

📝 How to attribute different types of borrowing

📝 Word-for-word quotations

Using something word-for-word from another source requires quotation marks, a signal phrase, and a parenthetical citation with the page number.

• The excerpt shows two patterns:
  • Signal phrase first: McGuffin and Cross have said, "No one should ever eat cake without frosting" (22).
  • Integrated into sentence: Cake, according to McGuffin and Cross, is one of those foods that should never be eaten "without frosting" (22).
• Why both elements matter: the signal phrase tells readers who said it; the citation tells where to find it.

✂️ Modified quotations

When changing word forms or adding words for clarity, put brackets around the segments you have changed, keep quotation marks, and include signal phrase plus citation.

• Example from excerpt: McGuffin and Cross seem to think that "…eat[ing] cake without frosting" should never be allowed (22).
• Brackets signal to readers that you altered the original wording to fit your sentence grammar.
• Don't confuse: brackets are for your changes; ellipses (…) are for omissions from the original.

🔄 Paraphrasing and summarizing

Restating the author's ideas without using the author's exact words still requires a signal phrase and parenthetical citation.

• Example from excerpt: According to McGuffin and Cross, cake is one of those special foods that require an additive to be properly enjoyed, like frosting (22).
• No quotation marks because you rewrote the idea entirely.
• Key difference from quoting: you express the concept in your own sentence structure and vocabulary.

⚠️ What counts as plagiarism

Substituting synonyms into someone else's sentence structure is plagiarism, even if you use a signal phrase and citation.

• The excerpt explicitly warns: "DON'T. This is plagiarism."
• Why it's still plagiarism: you are copying the author's structure and logic flow, not just individual words.
• Example scenario: if the source says "No one should ever eat cake without frosting," writing "Nobody ought to consume cake lacking icing" is plagiarism because you only swapped synonyms.

🔧 Rules for quotations, summaries, and facts

🔧 Quotation requirements

The excerpt lists five rules:

1. Quotation marks or block format: all quoted material must be enclosed in quotation marks unless set off from the rest of the text (block quotations).
2. Accuracy: quoted material should be word-for-word accurate; brackets or ellipsis marks indicate changes/omissions.
3. Signal phrase: a clear signal phrase should alert readers to each quotation and explain why it is there.
4. Citation: a parenthetical citation should follow each quotation.
5. Context: each quotation must be put in context (explain its relevance).

🔧 Summary (paraphrasing) requirements

The excerpt lists three rules:

1. No plagiarized wording: summaries must not include the source's exact phrasing.
2. Citation required: summaries must be followed by parenthetical citations.
3. Signal phrase: let readers know where the summarized material begins and why it is included.

🔧 Statistics and facts

The excerpt lists two rules:

1. Citation for non-common knowledge: any facts that are not common knowledge must have a parenthetical citation.
2. Signal phrase (when needed): use a signal phrase to help readers understand why the facts are cited, unless it is clear enough without one.

Don't confuse: "common knowledge" (no citation needed) vs. specialized facts (citation required). The excerpt does not define common knowledge but implies it is information widely known without needing a specific source.

📚 Citation information needed

📚 For books

The excerpt lists required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/translators
• Edition (if not first)
• Name, date, and city of publication/publisher

📚 For articles

The excerpt lists required elements:

• Author(s)
• Title and Subtitle
• Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Volume, issue, and page numbers

If retrieved from a database, also include:

• Name of database
• Name of subscription service
• URL of database
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
• Date source retrieved

📚 For web sources

The excerpt lists required elements:

• Author(s)
• Editors/Creators
• Title of source
• Title of site
• Publication information
• Date of publication or latest update
• Site sponsor
• Date source accessed
• Source URL

Note: The excerpt states this follows MLA style and refers readers to separate sections for APA and CMS styles (not included in this excerpt).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

MLA, APA, and CMS are three different academic formatting styles used in different fields—arts and humanities, social sciences, and publishing, respectively—each with its own rules for citations and signal phrases.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What they are: MLA, APA, and CMS are formatting styles for academic papers and written works, each developed by different organizations.
• Where each is used: MLA is used mostly in arts and humanities; APA in social sciences; CMS in publishing.
• Common confusion: Different styles require different information for citations—the same source may need different elements depending on which style you use.
• How they work: All three require in-text citations and signal phrases to attribute sources, but the specific format varies by style.

📚 The three citation styles

📖 MLA (Modern Language Association)

MLA stands for Modern Language Association. It is a style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the arts and humanities.

• Developed by the Modern Language Association.
• Primary use: arts and humanities disciplines.
• Example: If you're writing about literature, history, or philosophy, you'll likely use MLA.

🧠 APA (American Psychological Association)

APA stands for American Psychological Association, the professional guild who first developed the guidelines of the style. APA is a style of formatting academic papers that is used mostly in the social sciences.

• Developed by the American Psychological Association (a professional guild).
• Primary use: social sciences.
• Example: If you're writing about psychology, sociology, or education, you'll likely use APA.

📰 CMS (Chicago Manual of Style)

CMS stands for the Chicago Manual of Style. It is a style of formatting written works that is most widely used in publishing.

• Named after the Chicago Manual of Style.
• Primary use: publishing industry.
• Broader application than academic papers alone.

🔗 How MLA citations work

🔗 In-text citations (parenthetical citations)

An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument.

• Must be used after every direct quotation and every paraphrase/summary.
• The excerpt calls them "parenthetical citations" in MLA style.
• They appear in parentheses within your text.

👤 Citation with known author

• Include: author's last name + page/paragraph number.
• If you use a signal phrase with the author's name, you don't need to repeat the name in the citation.

Example:

• With signal phrase: Stephen Hawking describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as "very anti-work" (33).
• Without signal phrase: The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as "very anti-work" (Hawking 33).

❓ Citation with unknown author

• Include: title or shortened title + page/paragraph number.

Example:

• While some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection it's reported that "police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection" ("Fighting Anti-Trans Violence" 2).

👥 Citation with multiple authors

• Include: authors' last names + page/paragraph number.
• If a signal phrase includes the authors' names, don't repeat them in the citation.

💬 Signal phrases in MLA

💬 What signal phrases do

• Alert readers that a quotation or summary is coming.
• Tell readers why the source is being cited.
• Add variety and interest to your writing.

🎨 Model phrases

The excerpt provides templates for introducing sources:

• In the words of professors Greer and Dewey, "…"
• As sociology scholar Janice Kinsey has noted, "…"
• Creative Commons, an organization that helps internet users understand and create copyright for materials, reports that "…"
• "…," writes Deidre Tyrell, "…"
• "…," attorney Sanderson claims.
• Kyles and Sanderson offer up a compelling point: "…"

Don't confuse: Signal phrases can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence—vary their placement to keep writing interesting.

🗣️ Verbs for signal phrases

The excerpt lists many verbs you can use to introduce sources, including:

Neutral/Reporting	Agreeing/Supporting	Disagreeing/Challenging
Notes, Observes, Reports, Writes	Acknowledges, Agrees, Confirms, Endorses	Denies, Disputes, Refutes, Rejects
States, Comments, Points out	Grants, Illustrates	Challenges, Contends
Adds, Declares	Emphasizes, Insists	Argues, Claims

• Choose verbs that accurately reflect what the source is doing.
• Variety keeps your writing from becoming repetitive.

📋 What information you need for citations

📕 For books

• Author(s)
• Editors/translators
• Edition (if not first)
• Name, date, and city of publication/publisher

📄 For articles

• Author(s)
• Title and Subtitle
• Name of source (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Volume, issue, and page numbers

If retrieved from a database, also include:

• Name of database
• Name of subscription service
• URL of database
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
• Date source retrieved

🌐 For web sources

• Author(s)
• Editors/Creators
• Title of source
• Title of site
• Publication information
• Date of publication or latest update
• Site sponsor
• Date source accessed
• Source URL

Key point: Different citation styles require different information for each type of source—check the specific style guide (MLA/APA/CMS) you're using.

🚫 Avoiding plagiarism with proper attribution

✅ Using exact words (quotations)

• Put quotation marks around the excerpt.
• Use a signal phrase.
• Include a parenthetical citation with page number.

Example:

• McGuffin and Cross have said, "No one should ever eat cake without frosting" (22).
• Or: Cake, according to McGuffin and Cross, is one of those foods that should never be eaten "without frosting" (22).

🔧 Changing word forms or adding clarity

• Put quotation marks around the excerpt.
• Put brackets around segments you changed.
• Include signal phrase and parenthetical citation.

Example:

• McGuffin and Cross seem to think that "…eat[ing] cake without frosting" should never be allowed (22).

📝 Paraphrasing or summarizing

• Use a signal phrase.
• Include parenthetical citation with page number.
• Do NOT use the author's exact words.

Example:

• According to McGuffin and Cross, cake is one of those special foods that require an additive to be properly enjoyed, like frosting (22).

⚠️ What NOT to do

Using something from a source but substituting in some synonyms? DON'T. This is plagiarism, even if you use a signal phrase and include a parenthetical citation.

• Simply swapping in synonyms is still plagiarism.
• You must genuinely rewrite the idea in your own words, not just replace words one-by-one.

✔️ Citation checklists

✔️ For quotations

1. All quoted material must be in quotation marks (unless set off as a block quote).
2. Quoted material must be accurate word-for-word; use brackets or ellipsis marks to show changes/omissions.
3. A clear signal phrase should alert readers and explain why the quotation is there.
4. A parenthetical citation must follow each quotation.
5. Each quotation must be put in context.

✔️ For summaries (paraphrasing)

1. Summaries must not include plagiarized wording.
2. Summaries must be followed by parenthetical citations.
3. A signal phrase should show where the summarized material begins and why it's included.

✔️ For statistics and facts

1. Any facts that are not common knowledge must have a parenthetical citation.
2. Use a signal phrase to help readers understand why the facts are cited (unless already clear).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Signal phrases introduce quoted, paraphrased, or summarized material from sources and must work together with parenthetical citations to give proper credit and context.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What signal phrases do: alert readers that outside material is coming and explain why it matters in your argument.
• Must pair with citations: every quotation, paraphrase, summary, or non-common-knowledge fact needs both a signal phrase (or clear context) and a parenthetical citation.
• Variety matters: switching up the language and placement of signal phrases keeps writing interesting for readers.
• Common confusion: substituting synonyms into source material is still plagiarism, even if you add a signal phrase and citation—paraphrases must use your own wording.
• Format rules: quotations must be enclosed in quotation marks (unless set off), be word-for-word accurate, and include context.

📝 Quotation requirements

📝 Enclosing and accuracy

• All quoted material must be enclosed in quotation marks unless set off from the rest of the text.
• Quoted material must be accurate word-for-word.
• If anything was changed, brackets or ellipsis marks should indicate where the changes or omissions took place.

🔗 Signal phrases and citations for quotations

A clear signal phrase should alert your readers for each quotation and tell them why the quotation is there.

• A parenthetical citation must follow each quotation.
• Each quotation must be put in context—readers need to understand why the quote appears in your paper.
• Example: "According to McGuffin and Cross, cake is one of those special foods that require an additive to be properly enjoyed, like frosting (22)."

✍️ Summaries and paraphrases

✍️ Avoiding plagiarism

• Any summaries of the text should not include plagiarized wording.
• Don't confuse: using something from a source but substituting in some synonyms is plagiarism, even if you use a signal phrase and include a parenthetical citation.
• Summaries must use your own words and sentence structure.

🔗 Signal phrases and citations for summaries

• Summaries must be followed by parenthetical citations.
• A signal phrase should let your readers know where the summarized material begins.
• The signal phrase should also tell readers why the summary is included in your paper.

📊 Statistics and facts

📊 When to cite

• Any facts that are not common knowledge must have a parenthetical citation included in your paper.
• Use a signal phrase to help your reader understand why the facts are being cited, unless it is clear enough without one.

🎨 Varying your signal phrases

🎨 Model phrases

The excerpt provides templates for introducing sources with variety:

Phrase type	Example
"In the words of..."	In the words of professors Greer and Dewey, "…"
"As [role] has noted..."	As sociology scholar Janice Kinsey has noted, "…"
Organization as source	Creative Commons, an organization that helps internet users understand and create copyright for materials, reports that "…"
Mid-sentence attribution	"…," writes Deidre Tyrell, "…"
End attribution	"…," attorney Sanderson claims.
Colon introduction	Kyles and Sanderson offer up a compelling point: "…"

📚 Verb variety

The excerpt lists verbs to use in signal phrases to keep writing interesting:

Neutral reporting: acknowledges, adds, comments, notes, observes, points out, reports, writes

Argument/position: argues, asserts, believes, claims, contends, declares, insists, reasons, suggests, thinks

Agreement/support: agrees, confirms, endorses, grants

Disagreement/challenge: denies, disputes, refutes, rejects

Emphasis/comparison: emphasizes, compares, illustrates, implies

Response: admits, responds

🔢 In-text citation formats

🔢 Source with known author

In-text citations in MLA style are sometimes called parenthetical citations. An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument.

These citations need to include the author's last name and the page/paragraph number.

• If a signal phrase earlier in the sentence includes the author's name, the name does not need to be included in the citation.
• Example with signal phrase: Stephen Hawking describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as "very anti-work" (33).
• Example without signal phrase: The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as "very anti-work" (Hawking 33).

❓ Source with unknown author

• Include the title or shortened title of the work and the page/paragraph number.
• Example: While some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection it's reported that "police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection" ("Fighting Anti-Trans Violence" 2).

👥 Source with multiple authors

Three or fewer authors: all authors' last names need to be listed in the citation.

• Example with signal phrase: Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt suggest that more scientific research is needed before a conclusion between cause and effect can be drawn (198).
• Example without signal phrase: "More scientific research needs to be completed before any conclusions about causation can be drawn" (Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt 198).

More than three authors: only the first author's last name needs to be listed, followed by the phrase 'et al'.

• Example: De Walle et al. suggest that mainstream scientists and media organizations have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (231).

📚 Works Cited entry formats

📚 Book/print source with known author

Format: Last name, First name. Title of Book. City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Medium of Publication.

Example: Ip, Greg. The Little Book of Economics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010. Book.

📄 Article in a scholarly journal

Format: Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): pages. Medium of publication.

Example: Belzer, Alisa. "From Heroic Victims To Competent Comrades: Views Of Adult Literacy Learners In The Research Literature." Adult Education Quarterly. 65.3 (2015): 250-266. Web.

🌐 Webpage

Format: Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). "Page Title." Name of Website. Name of publisher, date of resource creation (if available). Medium of publication. Date of access.

Example: Ravenscraft, Eric. "How to Change Your Car's Oil." Lifehacker. Lifehacker, 1 August 2014. Web. 24 June 2016.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries follow specific formatting rules that vary based on whether the source has a known author, multiple authors, or no author, and whether it is a book, journal article, or webpage.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Two main citation components: in-text (parenthetical) citations within your text and Works Cited entries at the end of your paper.
• Signal phrases: introduce quoted or paraphrased material and can include the author's name, reducing what goes in parentheses.
• Author variations matter: formatting differs for known vs. unknown authors and for sources with one, two, three, or more than three authors.
• Common confusion: when to include the author's name in parentheses—if you already named the author in a signal phrase, don't repeat it in the citation.
• Source type affects Works Cited format: books, journal articles, and webpages each require different information in different orders.

📝 In-text (parenthetical) citations

📝 What in-text citations do

An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument.

• Must be used after every direct quotation and paraphrase/summary.
• Sometimes called "parenthetical citations" because they appear in parentheses.
• They point readers to the full source information in your Works Cited list.

✍️ Single known author

What to include: author's last name + page/paragraph number.

With signal phrase (author named in sentence):

• Example: Stephen Hawking describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as "very anti-work" (33).
• The name is already in the sentence, so only the page number goes in parentheses.

Without signal phrase:

• Example: The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as "very anti-work" (Hawking 33).
• Both name and page number go in parentheses.

❓ Unknown author

What to include: title or shortened title + page/paragraph number.

Example: While some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection it's reported that "police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection" ("Fighting Anti-Trans Violence" 2).

• Use quotation marks around article/webpage titles in the citation.
• Don't confuse: this is for sources where no author is listed, not for sources you simply don't know the author of.

👥 Multiple authors

Three or fewer authors: list all last names.

With signal phrase:

• Example: Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt suggest that more scientific research is needed before a conclusion between cause and effect can be drawn (198).

Without signal phrase:

• Example: "More scientific research needs to be completed before any conclusions about causation can be drawn" (Ishiguro, Garcia, and Schmidt 198).

More than three authors: use first author's last name + "et al."

With signal phrase:

• Example: De Walle et al. suggest that mainstream scientists and media organizations have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (231).

Without signal phrase:

• Example: The scientists involved in these studies have suggested that mainstream scientists and media organizations may have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (De Walle et al. 231).

🎯 Signal phrases

🎯 Purpose and variety

Signal phrases introduce quoted or paraphrased material and help vary your writing style.

Model structures:

• In the words of professors Greer and Dewey, "…"
• As sociology scholar Janice Kinsey has noted, "…"
• Creative Commons, an organization that helps internet users understand and create copyright for materials, reports that "…"
• "…," writes Deidre Tyrell, "…"
• "…," attorney Sanderson claims.
• Kyles and Sanderson offer up a compelling point: "…"

🔤 Verb choices

The excerpt provides a list of verbs to keep signal phrases interesting:

Category	Examples
Neutral reporting	Notes, Observes, Reports, Writes, Comments
Agreement/support	Agrees, Confirms, Endorses, Grants
Argument/claim	Argues, Asserts, Claims, Contends, Declares, Insists
Disagreement	Denies, Disputes, Refutes, Rejects
Analysis	Compares, Emphasizes, Illustrates, Implies, Points out, Reasons, Suggests

• Switching verbs and phrase placement keeps your writing from becoming repetitive.

📚 Works Cited entries

📖 Book/print source with known author

Format: Last name, First name. Title of Book. City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Medium of Publication.

Example: Ip, Greg. The Little Book of Economics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010. Book.

• Title is italicized.
• Includes city of publication (not just publisher).
• Medium is stated as "Book."

📄 Scholarly journal article

Format: Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Journal Volume.Issue (Year): pages. Medium of publication.

Example: Belzer, Alisa. "From Heroic Victims To Competent Comrades: Views Of Adult Literacy Learners In The Research Literature." Adult Education Quarterly. 65.3 (2015): 250-266. Web.

• Article title in quotation marks.
• Journal title italicized.
• Volume and issue numbers separated by a period.
• Page range included.
• Medium is "Web" for online access.

🌐 Webpage

Format: Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). "Page Title." Name of Website. Name of publisher, date of resource creation (if available). Medium of publication. Date of access.

Example: Ravenscraft, Eric. "How to Change Your Car's Oil." Lifehacker. Lifehacker, 1 August 2014. Web. 24 June 2016.

• Page title in quotation marks.
• Website name italicized.
• Includes both publication date and access date.
• Medium is "Web."
• Don't confuse: the publisher name and website name may be the same (as in this example).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Signal phrases introduce source material in varied, engaging ways by switching up language and placement, making citations more readable while maintaining proper attribution.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Purpose of signal phrases: introduce quotations, paraphrases, or summaries with attribution before or within the sentence.
• Variety matters: switching up language and placement keeps writing interesting for readers.
• Model structures: signal phrases can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence containing source material.
• Verb choice: different verbs (argued, claimed, suggested, etc.) convey different tones and relationships to the source material.
• Common confusion: signal phrases are not the same as in-text citations—they work together but serve different functions (attribution vs. documentation).

📝 What signal phrases do

📝 Core function

Signal phrases: language that introduces and attributes source material to its author(s) within the flow of your sentence.

• They tell the reader who said or wrote something before presenting the information.
• They work alongside in-text citations (which provide publication year and page numbers).
• Example: "In the words of Peterson (2012), '...'" — the phrase "In the words of Peterson" is the signal phrase; "(2012)" is part of the citation.

🔄 Why variety matters

• The excerpt emphasizes "switching up the language and placement" to keep things interesting.
• Repeating the same structure (e.g., always "Author says...") becomes monotonous.
• Different placements and verbs create rhythm and help readers stay engaged.

🎯 Model phrase structures

🎯 Beginning placement

Signal phrase introduces the source at the start of the sentence:

• "In the words of Peterson (2012), '...'"
• "As Johnson and Allen (2006) have noted, '...'"
• "Einstein and Yvanovich (1956), researchers in physics, pointed out that, '...'"

How it works: The author's name and credentials (if relevant) appear first, then the quotation follows.

🎯 End placement

The quotation comes first, then the attribution:

• "'...,' claimed Carter (1998)."

How it works: The source material leads, and the signal phrase closes the sentence—useful for emphasis on the content itself.

🎯 Middle placement

The signal phrase interrupts the quotation:

• "'...,' wrote Dietrich (2002), '...'"

How it works: Splits a longer quotation and integrates attribution smoothly within the flow.

🎯 Adding context

You can include descriptive information about the author:

• "Linguists McAllen et al. (2015) have compiled an impressive amount of data for this argument: '...'"
• "Harrison (2007) answered these criticisms with the following rebuttal: '...'"

Why: Identifying the author's field or role helps readers understand the source's authority or perspective.

🗣️ Verb choices

🗣️ What verbs convey

The excerpt provides a list of verbs to use in signal phrases. Different verbs suggest different relationships to the material:

Verb type	Examples	What they suggest
Neutral reporting	Noted, Observed, Reported, Wrote	Simply presenting information
Argument/position	Argued, Asserted, Claimed, Contended, Declared	Taking a stance
Agreement/support	Agreed, Confirmed, Believed, Suggested, Thought	Aligning with an idea
Disagreement/challenge	Denied, Refuted, Rejected, Responded	Opposing or countering
Emphasis	Emphasized, Insisted, Pointed out	Highlighting importance
Comparison	Compared	Examining similarities/differences

🗣️ Full verb list from excerpt

The excerpt lists these verbs for variety:

• Admitted, Agreed, Argued, Asserted, Believed, Claimed, Compared, Confirmed, Contended, Declared, Denied, Emphasized, Insisted, Noted, Observed, Pointed out, Reasoned, Refuted, Rejected, Reported, Responded, Suggested, Thought, Wrote

Don't confuse: The verb you choose is not just stylistic—it characterizes how the source presents the information (neutrally, argumentatively, etc.).

🔗 How signal phrases work with citations

🔗 The relationship

• Signal phrase: provides the author's name and introduces the material in natural language.
• In-text citation: provides the year, page/paragraph number in parentheses.
• They work together: the signal phrase handles attribution; the citation handles documentation details.

🔗 When the name is in the signal phrase

If you use the author's name in the signal phrase, you don't repeat it in the parenthetical citation:

• Example from excerpt: "Stephen Hawking (2013) describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as 'very anti-work' (p. 33)."
• The name "Stephen Hawking" appears in the signal phrase, so only the year and page go in parentheses.

🔗 When there's no signal phrase

If you don't use a signal phrase, all information goes in the parenthetical citation:

• Example from excerpt: "The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as 'very anti-work' (Hawking, 2013, p. 33)."
• No signal phrase, so the author's name, year, and page all appear in parentheses.

Don't confuse: Omitting the signal phrase is grammatically correct but may make writing feel less fluid—signal phrases help integrate sources smoothly into your prose.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

APA in-text citations must include author information, publication date, and page/paragraph numbers to credit outside sources for every quotation and paraphrase in your writing.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• When to cite: after every direct quotation and every paraphrase/summary from an outside source.
• Core citation elements: author's last name, publication date, and page or paragraph number where the information was found.
• Signal phrase option: if you mention the author's name earlier in the sentence, you don't need to repeat it in the parenthetical citation.
• Common confusion: how to handle unknown authors vs. multiple authors—use title for unknown authors; use "et al." for three or more authors after the first mention.
• Works Cited format: different source types (books, journal articles, webpages) require different formatting patterns.

📝 In-text citation basics

📝 What an in-text citation does

An in-text citation is used to let the reader of your work know that an outside source contributed to your writing of a particular phrase, idea, or argument.

• It is not optional: you must use in-text citations following every direct quotation and paraphrase/summary.
• The citation tells the reader where the information came from and where to find it.

🔑 Core elements required

Every in-text citation needs three pieces of information:

• Author's last name (or title if author is unknown)
• Date the information was published
• Page (p.) or paragraph (para.) number where you found the information

👤 Citations with known authors

👤 Single author format

The excerpt provides two patterns depending on whether you use a signal phrase:

With signal phrase (author name mentioned in the sentence):

• Example: Stephen Hawking (2013) describes the climate at Oxford while he was studying there as "very anti-work" (p. 33).
• The name is already in the sentence, so the citation only includes date and page.

Without signal phrase (author not mentioned earlier):

• Example: The climate at Oxford during his studies is described as "very anti-work" (Hawking, 2013, p. 33).
• All three elements go inside the parentheses.

👥 Two authors

• Both authors' last names must be listed in every citation.
• Use an ampersand (&) in the parenthetical citation.
• Example with signal phrase: Research by Ishiguro and Garcia (2009), suggest that more scientific study is needed before a conclusion between cause and effect can be drawn (p. 198).
• Example without signal phrase: "More scientific research needs to be completed before any conclusions about causation can be drawn" (Ishiguro & Garcia, 2009, p. 198).

👥 Three to five authors

• First citation: list all authors' last names.
  • Example: De Walle, Schmidt, and Lisowski (2010) assert that mainstream scientists and media organizations have ulterior motives when it comes to conducting such research (p. 231).
• After the first citation: use only the first author's last name followed by "et al."
  • Example: However, De Walle et al. (2010) could not provide adequate evidence for this assertion (p. 233).
• Don't confuse: you must list all names the first time; "et al." is only for subsequent citations of the same source.

👥 Six or more authors

• Use only the first author's last name followed by "et al." even in the first citation.
• Example: Willig et al. (1998) were the first group of researchers to take the issue seriously and perform in-depth research to identify potential negative effects of such events (p. 52).

🔍 Citations with unknown authors

🔍 Using the title instead of author name

When the author is unknown, the citation must include the title or a shortened version of the title:

• Titles of books and reports: italicized or underlined
• Titles of articles, chapters, and web pages: in quotation marks

🔍 Format patterns

With signal phrase (title mentioned in the sentence):

• Example: In "Fighting Anti-Trans Violence" (2015), readers are told that while some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection, "police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection" (para. 2).

Without signal phrase (title in the citation):

• Example: While some suggest that transgender individuals should rely on law enforcement for protection it's reported that "police often participate in the intimidation themselves rather than providing protection" ("Fighting Anti-Trans Violence", 2015, para. 2).

📚 Works Cited entries

📚 Book or print source with known author

Format pattern:

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.

Example:

Ip, G. (2010). The little book of economics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

• The title is italicized.
• Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitle, plus proper nouns.

📚 Article in a scholarly journal

Format pattern:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number, page range. doi: 0000000/000000000000 or http://dx.doi.org/10.0000/0000

Example:

Belzer, A., & Shapka J. (2015). From heroic victims to competent comrades: Views of adult literacy learners in the research literature. Adult Education Quarterly, 65.3, 250-266. Doi: 10.1177/0741713615580015

• The journal title is italicized, but the article title is not.
• Include the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) if available.

📚 Webpage

Format pattern:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from http://Web address

Example:

Ravenscraft, E. (2014, August 1). How to change your car's oil. Retrieved from http://lifehacker.com/how-to-change-your-cars-oil-1598482301

• Include the full URL.
• The title is italicized.

🎨 Signal phrases

🎨 Why vary signal phrases

The excerpt advises: "Keep things interesting for your readers by switching up the language and placement of your signal phrases."

• Signal phrases introduce quotations or paraphrases by naming the source.
• Varying the verbs and structure makes your writing less repetitive.

🎨 Model phrase patterns

The excerpt provides several patterns for integrating sources:

Pattern	Example
"In the words of [name], '…'"	In the words of geneticist Gregor Mendel, "…"
"As [name] has argued, '…'"	As Derek Terrence Crab has argued, "…"
"'…,' claims [name]."	"…," claims Benjamin Disraeli.
"'…,' writes [name], '…'"	"…," writes Albert Camus, "…"
"[Name] offers an intriguing interpretation: '…'"	Mary Shelly offers an intriguing interpretation: "…"

🎨 Verb options

The excerpt lists verbs you can use in signal phrases to describe what the source does:

• Neutral reporting: Noted, Observed, Reported, Wrote
• Asserting a position: Argued, Asserted, Claimed, Contended, Declared, Insisted
• Agreeing or confirming: Admitted, Agreed, Believed, Confirmed
• Disagreeing or challenging: Denied, Refuted, Rejected, Responded
• Analyzing: Compared, Emphasized, Pointed out, Reasoned, Suggested, Thought

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Signal phrases introduce quoted or paraphrased material in academic writing, and varying their language and placement keeps readers engaged while properly attributing sources.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What signal phrases do: they introduce quoted or paraphrased material and attribute it to the source author.
• Why variety matters: switching up the language and placement of signal phrases keeps writing interesting for readers.
• Model structures: signal phrases can appear before, after, or in the middle of quoted material.
• Verb choices: writers can choose from a range of verbs (argues, claims, suggests, etc.) to convey different tones and relationships to the source material.
• Common confusion: signal phrases are not just about attribution—they also shape how readers interpret the source's stance (e.g., "admits" vs. "argues" vs. "confirms").

📝 Model phrase structures

📝 Before the quotation

Signal phrases can introduce a quotation by naming the author and their credentials or context first.

• Example: In the words of geneticist Gregor Mendel, "…"
• Example: As Derek Terrence Crab has argued, "…"
• Example: In a letter to his brother, a Freedom Rider who witnessed the riots wrote that "…"

Why this matters: Placing the signal phrase first gives readers context before they encounter the quoted material, helping them understand the source's authority or perspective.

📝 After the quotation

The attribution can follow the quoted material, with the author's name appearing at the end.

• Example: "…," claims Benjamin Disraeli.
• Example: "…," writes Albert Camus, "…"

Why this matters: This structure emphasizes the quoted content itself, letting the words speak first before revealing the source.

📝 Split structure

Signal phrases can interrupt a quotation, appearing in the middle.

• Example: "…," writes Albert Camus, "…"

Why this matters: This creates variety and can help integrate longer quotations more smoothly into your own prose.

📝 Interpretive framing

Writers can frame a quotation with their own interpretation before presenting it.

• Example: Mary Shelly offers an intriguing interpretation: "…"

Why this matters: This structure tells readers how to approach the quotation, guiding their understanding of its significance.

🎯 Verb choices for signal phrases

🎯 Neutral reporting verbs

Some verbs simply report what the source says without implying judgment.

Verb	What it conveys
Notes	Simple observation
Observes	Noticing something
Points out	Drawing attention to
Reports	Conveying information
Writes	Basic attribution

Don't confuse: "Reports" is neutral, while "claims" suggests the writer may be skeptical of the assertion.

🎯 Argumentative verbs

These verbs indicate the source is making a case or taking a position.

Verb	What it conveys
Argues	Making a reasoned case
Asserts	Stating firmly
Claims	Declaring (may imply doubt)
Contends	Arguing against opposition
Insists	Emphasizing strongly

Why this matters: Choosing "argues" vs. "insists" shapes how readers perceive the source's tone and confidence level.

🎯 Agreement and disagreement verbs

These verbs show the source's relationship to other ideas.

Verb	What it conveys
Agrees	Aligning with others
Confirms	Verifying something
Denies	Rejecting a claim
Refutes	Disproving something
Rejects	Dismissing an idea

Example: "The researcher confirms earlier findings" vs. "The researcher refutes earlier findings"—the verb choice completely changes the meaning.

🎯 Reasoning and comparison verbs

These verbs indicate analytical or comparative work.

Verb	What it conveys
Compares	Examining similarities/differences
Emphasizes	Stressing importance
Reasons	Using logic
Responds	Reacting to others
Suggests	Proposing tentatively

Don't confuse: "Suggests" is tentative, while "declares" is definitive—choose based on the source's actual tone.

🎯 Belief and thinking verbs

These verbs attribute opinions or perspectives.

Verb	What it conveys
Admits	Acknowledging reluctantly
Believes	Holding an opinion
Thinks	Having a view

Why this matters: "Admits" implies the source is conceding something, possibly against their interest, while "believes" is more neutral.

💡 Keeping readers engaged

💡 Why variety matters

The excerpt instructs writers to "keep things interesting for your readers by switching up the language and placement of your signal phrases."

• Repeating the same structure ("Author says…") becomes monotonous.
• Varying both the verbs and the placement creates a more dynamic reading experience.
• The excerpt provides multiple model phrases and a substantial verb list specifically to enable this variety.

Example: Instead of always writing "Smith argues… Jones argues… Brown argues…", you might write "Smith argues…", "As Jones has noted…", "Brown offers a different interpretation:…"

💡 How to vary effectively

• Change verb choice: Use the full range of verbs (argues, suggests, confirms, denies, etc.) based on what the source actually does.
• Change placement: Sometimes introduce the author first, sometimes place attribution after the quotation, sometimes split the quotation.
• Change framing: Sometimes add context (credentials, circumstances), sometimes let the quotation stand with minimal framing.

Don't confuse: Variety for its own sake vs. meaningful variety—the verb and structure should still accurately represent the source's stance and tone.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Subordinate clauses are introduced by specific words that fall into three categories—adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses—each with its own set of introducing words.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Three types of subordinate clauses: adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses.
• Each type has specific introducing words: subordinating conjunctions for adverb clauses; relative pronouns and adverbs for adjective clauses; relative pronouns and other subordinating words for noun clauses.
• Adverb clauses use subordinating conjunctions: words like "because," "although," "when," "if," and "while."
• Adjective clauses use relative pronouns and adverbs: "that," "which," "who," "whom," "whose," "when," "where," "why."
• Noun clauses use relative pronouns and other subordinating words: "that," "which," "who," plus "what," "whatever," "how," "if," "whether," and others.

📝 Adverb clauses and their introducers

🔗 Subordinating conjunctions

Adverb clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions.

The excerpt lists the following subordinating conjunctions that introduce adverb clauses:

• Time-related: after, before, since, until, when, while
• Cause/reason: because, as, since
• Condition: if, unless, whether
• Contrast: although, though, even though
• Purpose: in order that, so that
• Comparison: than, as, as if
• Other: that, where

These words signal that the clause they introduce is subordinate and functions as an adverb in the sentence.

🏷️ Adjective clauses and their introducers

🔗 Relative pronouns

Adjective clauses are introduced by relative pronouns.

The excerpt lists five relative pronouns:

• that
• which
• who
• whom
• whose

These pronouns connect the adjective clause to the noun or pronoun it modifies.

📍 Relative adverbs

Adjective clauses can also be introduced by relative adverbs.

The excerpt lists three relative adverbs:

• when
• where
• why

Don't confuse: "when," "where," and "why" can introduce adjective clauses (as relative adverbs) or adverb clauses (as subordinating conjunctions); context determines their function.

📦 Noun clauses and their introducers

🔗 Relative pronouns (for noun clauses)

The same five relative pronouns that introduce adjective clauses can also introduce noun clauses:

• that
• which
• who
• whom
• whose

🔗 Other pronouns

The excerpt lists additional pronouns specific to noun clauses:

• what
• whatever
• whichever
• whoever
• whomever

These pronouns introduce clauses that function as nouns (subjects, objects, or complements).

🔗 Other subordinating words

The excerpt lists additional subordinating words for noun clauses:

• how
• if
• when
• whenever
• where
• wherever
• whether
• why

Don't confuse: Some words (e.g., "if," "when," "where," "whether") appear in multiple lists because they can introduce different types of subordinate clauses depending on how they function in the sentence.

📊 Summary comparison

Clause type	Introducing words	Word categories
Adverb clauses	after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, in order that, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whether, while	Subordinating conjunctions
Adjective clauses	that, which, who, whom, whose, when, where, why	Relative pronouns + relative adverbs
Noun clauses	that, which, who, whom, whose, what, whatever, whichever, whoever, whomever, how, if, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, why	Relative pronouns + other pronouns + other subordinating words

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Subject-verb agreement requires matching verb forms to their subjects in number and person, with third-person singular subjects taking special verb forms (usually adding -s or -es) in present tense.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core rule: In present tense, third-person singular subjects (he/she/it or singular nouns) require verbs ending in -s or -es; all other subjects use the base form.
• Special verbs: "Have," "do," and "be" follow irregular patterns that must be memorized.
• Three-step check: Determine if the subject is he/she/it/one, a singular noun, or a singular indefinite pronoun—if any are true, add -s/-es.
• Common confusion: Second-person "you" and all plural subjects (including "they") always take the base verb form without -s, even though "you" can refer to one person.
• Why it matters: Correct agreement prevents sentence fragments and ensures grammatical sentences.

📋 Regular verb conjugation patterns

📋 First and second person forms

• First person: "I" and "we" always use the base form (want, relax, have, do).
• Second person: "You" (both singular and plural) always uses the base form.
• Example: "I want to eat an ice cream" / "You have my full attention."

📋 Third person singular—the -s/-es rule

Third-person singular subjects (he/she/it) require adding -s or -es to the base verb in present tense.

• This is the only form that changes from the base.
• "Want" becomes "wants"; "relax" becomes "relaxes."
• Example: "He wants" / "She relaxes" / "It has very bad breath!"
• Don't confuse: "They" is third person but plural, so it takes the base form: "They want" (not "wants").

📋 Third person plural

• "They" uses the base form, matching first and second person.
• Example: "They relax visibly" / "They do their own homework."

🔧 Irregular verb patterns

🔧 The verb "have"

Person	Singular	Plural
First	I have	We have
Second	You have	You have
Third	He/she/it has	They have

• Only third-person singular changes: "has" instead of "have."
• Example: "You have my full attention" / "It has very bad breath!"

🔧 The verb "do/don't"

Person	Singular	Plural
First	I do/don't	We do/don't
Second	You do/don't	You do/don't
Third	He/she/it does/doesn't	They do/don't

• Third-person singular uses "does/doesn't."
• Example: "She doesn't like to wear dresses" / "We do our own homework."

🔧 The verb "be"

Person	Singular	Plural
First	I am/was	We are/were
Second	You are/were	You are/were
Third	He/she/it is/was	They are/were

• "Be" is the most irregular: three different present forms (am/are/is) and two past forms (was/were).
• Example: "We are learning so much today!" / "I was lost before!"

✅ Decision flowchart for -s/-es

✅ Three questions to ask

The excerpt provides a three-step check:

1. Is the subject he, she, it, or one? → If yes, use -s/-es.
2. Is the subject a singular noun? → If yes, use -s/-es.
3. Is the subject a singular indefinite pronoun? → If yes, use -s/-es.
4. If all answers are no → stick with the base form.

✅ Examples of each case

• He/she/it/one: "He loves going to watch musical theater."
• Singular noun: "A parent wants the best for their child."
• Singular indefinite pronoun: "Everybody swims in the lake during the summer."

Don't confuse: A singular noun like "parent" takes -s even though it might refer to multiple people in general; the grammatical subject is still singular.

🚫 Related sentence problems

🚫 Fragments

The excerpt includes a fragment check:

• No verb: "A movie with pointless twists" (fix: "The movie has pointless twists").
• No subject: "For not doing her own homework, Missy was expelled" needs the subject "Missy" clearly attached to the verb.
• Subordinate clause beginning: "Because the band didn't know the street address, the party was impossible to find" can be reordered.

🚫 Run-on sentences

The excerpt shows how to identify and fix run-ons:

• Problem: "We've learned so much about grammar already how am I going to remember it all?" (two independent clauses with no connector).
• Fix with comma + conjunction: "We've learned so much about grammar already, and I'm worried about how I'm going to remember it all."
• Fix with semicolon: "We've learned so much about grammar already; how am I going to remember it all?"

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

In present tense, you add –s (or –es) to the verb when the subject is third-person singular (he, she, it, one, a singular noun, or a singular indefinite pronoun), but use the base form for all other subjects.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The –s rule: add –s or –es to present-tense verbs only when the subject is third-person singular.
• Three trigger categories: he/she/it/one, singular nouns, and singular indefinite pronouns all require –s.
• Common confusion: "you" never takes –s (even when singular), and plural subjects always use the base form.
• How to decide: follow a three-question flowchart—check if the subject is he/she/it/one, then singular noun, then singular indefinite pronoun; if none apply, stick with the base form.

📋 Present-tense conjugation patterns

📋 Regular verb forms across persons

The excerpt provides conjugation tables for several verbs. The pattern is consistent:

Person	Singular Pronoun	Singular Verb	Plural Pronoun	Plural Verb
First	I	want / relax / have / do / am	We	want / relax / have / do / are
Second	You	want / relax / have / do / are	You	want / relax / have / do / are
Third	He/she/it	wants / relaxes / has / does / is	They	want / relax / have / do / are

• Only third-person singular adds –s or –es (or changes form entirely, as with "have" → "has" and "do" → "does").
• First and second person always use the base form in both singular and plural.
• Example: "I want to eat an ice cream." vs. "He wants to eat an ice cream."

🔄 Irregular verbs follow the same rule

Even irregular verbs like "be," "have," and "do" follow the third-person singular pattern:

• Have: "You have my full attention." vs. "It has very bad breath!"
• Do/Don't: "We do our own homework." vs. "She doesn't like to wear dresses."
• Be: "We are learning so much today!" vs. "I was lost before!"

The –s principle applies regardless of whether the verb is regular or irregular; only the form changes.

✅ When to add –s: the three triggers

✅ Trigger 1: He, she, it, or one

Verb's subject is he, she, it, or one.

• These third-person singular pronouns always require –s.
• Example from the excerpt: "He loves going to watch musical theater."
• Don't confuse: "you" is second person and never takes –s, even when referring to one person.

✅ Trigger 2: A singular noun

Verb's subject is a singular noun.

• Any singular noun (not a pronoun) acting as the subject triggers –s.
• Example from the excerpt: "A parent wants the best for their child."
• The noun "parent" is singular, so "want" becomes "wants."

✅ Trigger 3: A singular indefinite pronoun

Verb's subject is a singular indefinite pronoun.

• Indefinite pronouns like "everybody," "someone," "anyone," etc., are treated as singular.
• Example from the excerpt: "Everybody swims in the lake during the summer."
• Don't confuse: "they" is plural and uses the base form, but "everybody" is grammatically singular despite referring to multiple people.

🗺️ Decision flowchart

🗺️ Three-question process

The excerpt provides a decision tree:

1. Is the verb's subject he, she, it, or one?

   • If yes → Time to use –s!
   • If no → go to question 2.

2. Is the subject a singular noun?

   • If yes → Time to use –s!
   • If no → go to question 3.

3. Is the subject a singular indefinite pronoun?

   • If yes → Time to use –s!
   • If no → Stick with the base form of the verb.

🗺️ When to use the base form

• Use the base form (no –s) for:
  • First-person subjects (I, we)
  • Second-person subjects (you, singular or plural)
  • Third-person plural subjects (they, plural nouns)
• Example: "They relax visibly." (plural subject, base form)
• Example: "You have my full attention." (second person, base form)

Markdown review notes complete.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A sentence fragment lacks essential elements—a verb, a subject, or begins with a subordinate clause without a main clause—and can be fixed by adding the missing component or restructuring the sentence.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What makes a fragment: missing a verb, missing a subject, or starting with a subordinate clause (like "because" or "when") without completing the thought.
• How to identify: check systematically for verb presence, subject presence, and whether the sentence begins with a subordinating word.
• Common confusion: subordinate clauses vs. complete sentences—a clause starting with "because" or "when" needs a main clause to be complete.
• How to fix: add the missing verb or subject, or attach the subordinate clause to an independent clause.

🔍 Three types of fragments

🚫 No verb fragment

A fragment that lacks a verb cannot express a complete action or state.

• The excerpt shows: "A movie with pointless twists" is incomplete.
• Why it's a fragment: there is no verb to tell what the movie does or is.
• Fix: Add a verb.
  • Example: "The movie has pointless twists."

🚫 No subject fragment

A fragment that lacks a subject cannot identify who or what performs the action.

• The excerpt shows: "For not doing her own homework, Missy was expelled" is structured incorrectly as a fragment example.
• The corrected version clarifies: "Missy was expelled for not doing her own homework."
• Why it matters: the subject must appear to anchor the verb.
• Fix: Ensure the subject is present and clear.

🚫 Subordinate clause fragment

A fragment that begins with a subordinating word (like "because" or "when") without a main clause leaves the thought incomplete.

• The excerpt shows: "Because the band didn't know the street address, the party was impossible to find."
• This is presented as a fragment example, though the corrected version shows how to fix it.
• Fix: Either remove the subordinating word or attach the clause to an independent clause.
  • Example: "The band couldn't find the party because no one knew the address."
• Don't confuse: a subordinate clause can appear in a complete sentence if it is joined to a main clause; standing alone, it is a fragment.

🛠️ How to check for fragments

🛠️ The three-step test

The excerpt provides a decision flowchart:

Step	Question	If NO	If YES
1	Is there a verb?	Fragment alert!	Go to step 2
2	Is there a subject?	Fragment alert!	Go to step 3
3	Does your word group begin with "because" or "when" (a subordinate clause)?	Congratulations! Not a fragment.	Fragment alert!

• This systematic check ensures you catch all three fragment types.
• The flowchart emphasizes: all three conditions must be satisfied for a complete sentence.

✅ Examples of fixes

The excerpt contrasts fragments with corrected sentences:

• No verb: "A movie with pointless twists." → "The movie has pointless twists."
• No subject: "For not doing her own homework, Missy was expelled." → "Missy was expelled for not doing her own homework."
• Subordinate clause: "Because the band didn't know the street address, the party was impossible to find." → "The band couldn't find the party because no one knew the address."

Each fix adds the missing element or restructures to integrate the subordinate clause properly.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions, and it can be fixed by adding a comma with a coordinating conjunction or by using a semicolon.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What makes a run-on: two or more independent clauses joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions.
• How to identify: check if your sentence contains multiple independent clauses and whether they are properly connected.
• Two main fixes: use a comma plus a coordinating conjunction, or use a semicolon between the clauses.
• Common confusion: a long sentence is not automatically a run-on—only improperly joined independent clauses create run-ons.

🔍 Identifying run-on sentences

🔍 What counts as a run-on

A run-on sentence: a sentence containing more than one independent clause that are not properly joined with punctuation or conjunctions.

• The problem is not sentence length but improper connection between complete thoughts.
• Each independent clause could stand alone as a sentence, but they are incorrectly merged.
• Example from the excerpt: "We've learned so much about grammar already how am I going to remember it all?" (two complete thoughts run together without proper connection).

✅ When you don't have a run-on

• If your sentence contains only one independent clause → not a run-on.
• If multiple clauses are joined with a comma AND a coordinating conjunction → properly connected, not a run-on.
• If multiple clauses are joined by a semicolon → properly connected, not a run-on.

🛠️ Fixing run-on sentences

🛠️ Fix option 1: Comma + coordinating conjunction

• Add a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) between the independent clauses.
• Example transformation: "We've learned so much about grammar already how am I going to remember it all?" becomes "We've learned so much about grammar already, and I'm worried about how I'm going to remember it all."
• The conjunction clarifies the relationship between the two thoughts.

🛠️ Fix option 2: Semicolon

• Use a semicolon to separate the independent clauses without a conjunction.
• Example transformation: "We've learned so much about grammar already how am I going to remember it all?" becomes "We've learned so much about grammar already**;** how am I going to remember it all?"
• The semicolon shows the clauses are closely related but can stand independently.

📋 Decision flowchart summary

Question	Answer	Result
Does your sentence contain more than one independent clause?	No	You're good—not a run-on
Does your sentence contain more than one independent clause?	Yes → Are they joined with comma + coordinating conjunction?	Yes → You're good
Does your sentence contain more than one independent clause?	Yes → Are they joined by a semicolon?	Yes → You're good
Does your sentence contain more than one independent clause?	Yes → Neither proper connection present?	Run-on—revise it!

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A dangling modifier error occurs when a sentence's opening phrase suggests an action but the sentence's subject does not identify who performed that action, requiring revision to clearly name the actor.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What triggers the check: an opening phrase that suggests an action without naming the actor.
• The core test: after an action-suggesting opener, the sentence subject must identify who did that action.
• Common confusion: the opener describes an action, but the sentence subject is the wrong noun (often an object or event instead of the person acting).
• How to fix it: revise the sentence so the subject clearly names the actor, or restructure to avoid the dangling construction.

🔍 Identifying dangling modifiers

🔍 The two-question diagnostic

The excerpt provides a decision tree with two key questions:

1. Does your opener suggest an action without naming the actor?

   • If no → the sentence is fine
   • If yes → proceed to question 2

2. Does the subject of your sentence identify the actor?

   • If yes → the sentence is fine
   • If no → you have a dangling modifier that needs revision

⚠️ What makes a modifier "dangle"

• The opening phrase describes an action (often starting with an -ing verb or infinitive).
• The phrase does not explicitly name who performs the action.
• The sentence subject that follows is not the person/thing doing the action in the opener.
• This mismatch creates confusion about who is actually performing the action.

Example: "Having finished setting up the tables, the party started."

• The opener suggests someone finished setting up tables.
• The subject is "the party"—but a party cannot set up tables.
• The actor is missing or misidentified.

🛠️ Fixing dangling modifiers

🛠️ Strategy 1: Make the subject match the actor

Revise so the sentence subject clearly identifies who performed the action in the opening phrase.

Dangling modifier	Corrected version
Having finished setting up the tables, the party started.	Having finished setting up the tables, the seniors could finally start the party.
To improve his results, the placement test was taken again.	Jake improved his results by taking the placement test again.

🛠️ Strategy 2: Restructure the sentence

Rewrite to eliminate the dangling construction entirely, often by converting the opener into a complete clause.

Dangling modifier	Corrected version
Without knowing the street address, it was impossible to find the party.	Because the band didn't know the street address, the party was impossible to find.

🎯 Key principle

After an action-suggesting opener, the sentence subject must identify the actor who performed that action.

• Don't confuse: the subject doesn't just need to be related to the action—it must be the actual performer of the action described in the opener.
• The corrected versions either name the actor as the subject or restructure to avoid the ambiguity entirely.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Verb forms in English follow predictable patterns for regular verbs but require memorization for irregular verbs, and these forms combine with helping verbs to create tenses that express when and how actions occur.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Five core verb forms: every verb has a base form, past tense, past participle, present participle, and -s form.
• Regular vs irregular: regular verbs add -ed/-d for past forms; irregular verbs change unpredictably (e.g., "sing" becomes "sang" and "sung").
• Tense construction: tenses combine helping verbs (am, is, are, was, were, has, have, had, will) with participles or base forms.
• Common confusion: past tense vs past participle—"sang" is past tense (used alone); "sung" is past participle (used with helping verbs like "has").
• Active vs passive voice: the same tense can appear in both voices, but passive uses "be" + past participle.

📋 The five verb forms

📋 What every verb has

Every English verb exists in five forms that serve different grammatical functions:

Form	Regular example (relax)	Irregular example (sing)	Irregular example (be)
Base Form	relax	sing	be
Past Tense	relaxed	sang	was, were
Past Participle	relaxed	sung	been
Present Participle	relaxing	singing	being
-s Form	relaxes	sings	is

🔄 Regular vs irregular patterns

• Regular verbs: past tense and past participle are identical, formed by adding -ed or -d to the base.
  • Example: "relax" → "relaxed" (both past tense and past participle).
• Irregular verbs: past tense and past participle often differ and must be memorized.
  • Example: "sing" → "sang" (past tense) vs "sung" (past participle).
  • Example: "be" has the most irregular forms: "was/were" (past tense), "been" (past participle), "is" (-s form).

Don't confuse: For regular verbs, past tense and past participle look the same but serve different roles; for irregular verbs, they are often completely different words.

⏰ Simple tenses (active voice)

⏰ Simple present

General facts, states of being, scheduled events in the future, and repeated actions = base form or -s form.

• Uses the base form (for plural subjects) or -s form (for singular third-person subjects).
• Covers habitual actions, universal truths, and even some future events that are scheduled.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "Teachers often grade late into the night" (repeated action).
  • "Water becomes ice at 32 degrees Fahrenheit" (general fact).
  • "The plane departs tonight at 9:00 p.m." (scheduled future event).

⏰ Simple past

Completed actions from the past that occurred at a specific time or facts/states of being that occurred in the past = base form + -ed/-d/irregular form.

• Uses the past tense form (second column in the verb table).
• Indicates actions finished at a known or implied past time.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "Their neighbors worked together to rebuild the house."
  • "He drove across country to prove a point."
  • "When she was young, my sister played with me all the time."

⏰ Simple future

Future actions, predictions, or promises = will + base form.

• Combines "will" with the base form of the verb.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "I will eat in a few minutes."
  • "The rain will stop any second now."

🔄 Progressive forms (active voice)

🔄 Present progressive

Actions that are happening right now, but not happening forever or future actions = am, is, are + present participle.

• Uses a form of "be" (am/is/are) plus the present participle (the -ing form).
• Can describe ongoing actions at this moment or planned future actions.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "The teachers are meeting in the boardroom" (happening now).
  • "We are baking cookies tomorrow" (future action).

🔄 Past progressive

Actions that happened at a specific time in the past or past plans that didn't happen = was, were/was going to, were going to + present participle.

• Uses "was" or "were" plus the present participle.
• Often describes an action in progress when something else occurred.
• Can also express plans that were abandoned ("was going to").
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "They were sailing when the hurricane hit."
  • "I was going to fly out tonight, but couldn't get a ticket."

✅ Perfect tenses (active voice)

✅ Present perfect

Repetitive or constant actions that began in the past but are still happening or actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past = has, have + past participle.

• Uses "has" or "have" plus the past participle (third column in the verb table).
• Connects past actions to the present moment.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "I have loved dogs since I was a child" (continuous from past to now).
  • "Stephanie has bought three cars in three years" (repeated action).

Don't confuse: Present perfect uses the past participle ("sung"), not the past tense ("sang").

✅ Past perfect

Actions that occurred/began before something else in the past = had + past participle.

• Uses "had" plus the past participle.
• Shows that one past event happened before another past event.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • "He had just choked when the ambulance drove by" (choking happened first, then the ambulance arrived).

🔁 Perfect progressive forms (active voice)

🔁 Present perfect progressive

Continuous actions that began in the past but are still occurring = has, have + been + present participle.

• Combines "has/have" + "been" + the present participle.
• Emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action that started earlier and continues now.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • "Ygritte has been trying to learn knitting for years."

🔁 Past perfect progressive

Actions that began and continued in the past until some other action in the past occurred = had + been + present participle.

• Combines "had" + "been" + the present participle.
• Shows a continuous past action that was interrupted or ended by another past event.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • "By the time I moved to Klamath Falls, I had been writing for ten years" (writing continued up to the move).

🔀 Passive voice tenses

🔀 How passive voice works

Passive voice shifts focus from the actor to the action or recipient. It uses forms of "be" plus the past participle.

🔀 Simple passive tenses

Tense	Formula	Example from excerpt
Simple present	am, is, are + past participle	"Lunch is served at noon."
Simple past	was, were + past participle	"She was rewarded for her information."
Simple future	will be + past participle	"I will be there on Saturday."

• Simple present passive: describes habitual or general actions in passive form.
• Simple past passive: describes completed past actions in passive form.
• Simple future passive: describes future actions or promises in passive form.

🔀 Progressive passive tenses

Tense	Formula	Example from excerpt
Present progressive	am, is, are + being + past participle	"The votes are being counted by impartial volunteers."
Past progressive	(not shown in excerpt)	(not shown in excerpt)

• Present progressive passive: describes actions currently in progress (passive) or future actions paired with verbs like "go, leave, move."
• Example: "Joe is being crowned king of the dance."

Don't confuse: Passive voice always requires a form of "be" plus the past participle; active voice uses the past participle only in perfect tenses (with "has/have/had").

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

English verb tenses in active voice combine time frames (simple, progressive, perfect) with helping verbs and participles to show when actions occur and whether they are completed, ongoing, or repeated.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Three main tense families: simple (basic time), progressive (ongoing actions), and perfect (actions with a relationship to another time point).
• How tenses are built: each tense uses a specific formula combining base forms, participles, and helping verbs like will, has, have, had, am, is, are, was, were.
• Time + aspect combinations: the same time frame (present, past, future) can express different aspects—one-time facts, continuous actions, or actions that started earlier and continue.
• Common confusion: present perfect vs. simple past—present perfect connects past actions to now (unspecified time or still happening), while simple past marks completed actions at a specific past time.
• Why it matters: choosing the right tense signals whether an action is finished, still in progress, habitual, or linked to another event.

⏰ Simple tenses: basic time frames

🕐 Simple present

General facts, states of being, scheduled events in the future, and repeated actions = base form or –s form

• Used for timeless truths, habitual actions, and fixed future schedules.
• Formula: base verb or base + -s (third person singular).
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • "Teachers often grade late into the night." (repeated action)
  • "Water becomes ice at 32 degrees Fahrenheit." (general fact)
  • "The plane departs tonight at 9:00 p.m." (scheduled future event)

🕑 Simple past

Completed actions from the past that occurred at a specific time or facts/states of being that occurred in the past = base form + -ed/-d/irregular form

• Marks actions finished at a known past moment.
• Formula: regular verbs add -ed or -d; irregular verbs change form.
• Examples:
  • "Their neighbors worked together to rebuild the house." (completed action)
  • "He drove across country to prove a point." (irregular past)
  • "When she was young, my sister played with me all the time." (past state + repeated past action)

🕒 Simple future

Future actions, predictions, or promises = will + base form

• Expresses what will happen later or what someone commits to do.
• Formula: will + base verb.
• Examples:
  • "I will eat in a few minutes." (future action)
  • "The rain will stop any second now." (prediction)

🔄 Progressive forms: ongoing actions

🔄 Present progressive

Actions that are happening right now, but not happening forever or future actions = am, is, are + present participle

• Shows actions in progress at this moment or planned future actions.
• Formula: am/is/are + verb + -ing.
• Examples:
  • "The teachers are meeting in the boardroom. Josie is meeting the principal." (happening now)
  • "We are baking cookies tomorrow." (future plan)
• Don't confuse with simple present: simple present is for habits or facts; present progressive is for temporary, ongoing actions.

🔄 Past progressive

Actions that happened at a specific time in the past or past plans that didn't happen = was, were/was going to, were going to + present participle

• Describes actions in progress at a particular past moment or intentions that didn't materialize.
• Formula: was/were + verb + -ing (or was/were going to + verb + -ing for unrealized plans).
• Examples:
  • "They were sailing when the hurricane hit." (action in progress interrupted by another event)
  • "I was going to fly out tonight, but couldn't get a ticket." (plan that didn't happen)

🔗 Perfect tenses: linking time points

🔗 Present perfect

Repetitive or constant actions that began in the past but are still happening or actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past = has, have + past participle

• Connects past actions to the present: either still ongoing or relevant now.
• Formula: has/have + past participle.
• Examples:
  • "I have loved dogs since I was a child." (started in the past, still true)
  • "Alex has lived in the UK for over a year." (began in the past, continues now)
  • "Stephanie has bought three cars in three years." (repeated actions over a period up to now)
• Key distinction: the exact time is not specified or not important; the focus is on the connection to now.

🔗 Past perfect

Actions that occurred/began before something else in the past = had + past participle

• Shows one past event happened earlier than another past event.
• Formula: had + past participle.
• Example:
  • "He had just choked when the ambulance drove by." (choking happened first, then the ambulance arrived)
• Why it matters: establishes sequence in the past—what came first.

🔄🔗 Perfect progressive forms: continuous actions with time links

🔄🔗 Present perfect progressive

Continuous actions that began in the past but are still occurring = has, have + been + past participle

• Emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action that started earlier and continues now.
• Formula: has/have + been + present participle.
• Example:
  • "Ygritte has been trying to learn knitting for years." (started in the past, still trying now)
• Don't confuse with present perfect: present perfect can describe repeated or completed actions; present perfect progressive stresses continuous effort or duration.

🔄🔗 Past perfect progressive

Actions that began and continued in the past until some other action in the past occurred = had + been + present participle

• Shows a continuous past action that was interrupted or ended by another past event.
• Formula: had + been + present participle.
• Example:
  • "By the time I moved to Klamath Falls, I had been writing for ten years." (writing was ongoing in the past up to the moment of moving)

📋 Verb forms reference

The excerpt provides a table of verb forms used to build tenses:

Form	Regular (Relax)	Irregular (Sing)	Irregular (Be)
Base Form	Relax	Sing	Be
Past Tense	Relaxed	Sang	Was, were
Past Participle	Relaxed	Sung	Been
Present Participle	Relaxing	Singing	Being
-s Form	Relaxes	Sings	Is

• Base form: used in simple present (except third person singular) and with will for simple future.
• Past tense: used in simple past.
• Past participle: used in all perfect tenses.
• Present participle: used in all progressive forms.
• -s form: used in simple present third person singular.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Passive voice verb tenses shift focus from the doer to the receiver of an action by combining forms of "be" with past participles, and they follow parallel patterns across simple, progressive, and perfect tenses.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core structure: Passive voice = form of "be" (am/is/are/was/were/will be/has been/had been) + past participle.
• When to use: Passive emphasizes the action or receiver rather than the doer; useful for general facts, completed actions, or when the actor is unknown/unimportant.
• Tense patterns: Passive voice mirrors active voice tenses (simple, progressive, perfect) but adds "being" or "been" depending on the form.
• Common confusion: Not all tenses work in passive—future progressive, future perfect, and perfect progressive forms are not used in passive voice.
• Recognition tip: Look for "be" verb + past participle to identify passive constructions.

📝 Simple tenses in passive voice

🎯 Simple present passive

Simple present passive = am, is, are + past participle

• Use: General facts or habitual repetitive actions
• The focus is on what happens regularly, not who does it
• Example: "Lunch is served at noon" (emphasis on the lunch service, not the server)
• Example: "The locks are checked every night" (routine action, actor unimportant)

⏮️ Simple past passive

Simple past passive = was, were + past participle

• Use: Completed past actions
• Shifts attention to what was done rather than who did it
• Example: "She was rewarded for her information" (the reward is emphasized)

⏭️ Simple future passive

Simple future passive = will be + past participle

• Use: Future promises, predictions, or actions
• Example: "I will be there on Saturday"
• The structure emphasizes the future state or action

🔄 Progressive forms in passive voice

🔄 Present progressive passive

Present progressive passive = am, is, are + being + past participle

• Use: Actions currently in progress or future actions (paired with verbs like go, leave, move)
• Notice the addition of "being" between the "be" verb and past participle
• Example: "The votes are being counted by impartial volunteers" (ongoing action right now)
• Example: "Joe is being crowned king of the dance" (action happening at this moment)

⏪ Past progressive passive

Past progressive passive = was, were + being + past participle

• Use: Actions that were in progress at a specific time in the past
• Again uses "being" to show the progressive aspect
• Example: "They thought they were being careful" (continuous action in the past)

✨ Perfect tenses in passive voice

✅ Present perfect passive

Present perfect passive = has, have + been + past participle

• Use: Actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past OR actions that began in the past but are still currently occurring
• Uses "been" instead of "being"
• Example: "The boat has been delayed because of the hurricane in the Atlantic" (past action with present relevance)
• Example: "Tests have been proctored by teachers for many years" (action continuing from past to present)

⏮️✅ Past perfect passive

Past perfect passive = had + been + past participle

• Use: Actions that began or occurred before something else in the past
• Shows sequence: one past action happened before another past action
• Example: "She had been searching for clues for hours before bedtime" (searching happened before bedtime)

⚠️ Limitations of passive voice

Important restriction: Future progressive, future perfect, and perfect progressive tenses are not used in passive voice.

Tense category	Available in passive?
Simple (present/past/future)	✓ Yes
Progressive (present/past)	✓ Yes
Progressive (future)	✗ No
Perfect (present/past)	✓ Yes
Perfect (future)	✗ No
Perfect progressive (all)	✗ No

🔑 Recognizing passive voice patterns

🔍 Structure markers

• All passive constructions include a form of "be" + past participle
• Progressive forms add "being": am/is/are/was/were + being + past participle
• Perfect forms add "been": has/have/had + been + past participle
• Don't confuse: "being" signals progressive; "been" signals perfect

📊 Quick reference table

Tense	Passive formula	Example phrase
Simple present	am/is/are + past participle	"is served"
Simple past	was/were + past participle	"was rewarded"
Simple future	will be + past participle	"will be there"
Present progressive	am/is/are + being + past participle	"are being counted"
Past progressive	was/were + being + past participle	"were being careful"
Present perfect	has/have + been + past participle	"has been delayed"
Past perfect	had + been + past participle	"had been searching"

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Modal verbs convey different degrees of ability, permission, possibility, necessity, and certainty, and choosing the right modal depends on the formality, time frame, and strength of the meaning you want to express.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What modals express: ability, requests, permission, possibility, necessity, advice, certainty, and promises.
• Formality matters: "can" and "could" are informal requests/permissions, while "may" is formal.
• Strength varies: "might" shows stronger possibility than "may"; "must" indicates necessity or near certainty.
• Common confusion: "could" vs "can"—"could" refers to past ability or requests, while "can" refers to present ability or informal requests.
• Time distinctions: some modals change meaning based on whether they refer to present, past, or future actions.

🎯 Ability and requests

💪 CAN – present ability and informal requests

General ability in the present to do something, or an informal request or permission granted.

• Describes what someone is capable of doing right now.
• Also used for casual requests and granting permission.
• Example: "I can write a grammar book" (ability); "Can I have the last cookie?" (informal request).

🕰️ COULD – past ability and polite requests

General ability in the past to do something, or an informal request or permission granted.

• Refers to abilities someone had in the past.
• Also functions as a polite way to ask for something.
• Example: "Lester could play the piano when he was five" (past ability); "Could you pass the salt?" (polite request).
• Don't confuse: "can" is for present ability; "could" is for past ability or requests.

🎲 Possibility and permission

🎫 MAY – formal permission and possibility

A formal request or permission granted, or a possibility, something that could or could not happen.

• Used in formal contexts for asking permission or granting it.
• Also expresses something that might or might not occur.
• Example: "May I go to the bathroom?" (formal request); "I may go see the movie tonight" (possibility).

🔮 MIGHT – stronger possibility

A possibility, something that could or could not happen. Usually stronger possibility than may.

• Indicates something is more likely to happen compared to "may."
• Example: "The library might allow students to bring in food."
• Don't confuse: "might" suggests a stronger likelihood than "may."

⚡ Necessity and certainty

🚨 MUST – necessity and near certainty

Something that is a necessity either in the present or the future, a strong possibility, or a near certainty in the present or past.

Three main uses:

• Necessity: something required or essential.
• Strong possibility: something very likely in the present.
• Near certainty about the past: a logical conclusion.

Examples:

• "You must mix the batter for five minutes" (necessity).
• "Andrew must be late" (strong present possibility).
• "You must have left the tickets in the car" (past certainty).

💯 WILL – certainty, requests, and promises

A certainty, request, or promise.

• Expresses something that will definitely happen.
• Can also be used to make requests or commitments.
• Example: "If you don't go to sleep now, you will regret it tomorrow" (certainty); "Will you go to Miranda's party with me?" (request); "Jamie will plan the wedding" (promise).

💡 Advice and repeated actions

📋 SHOULD – suggestions, obligations, and expectations

Suggestions or advice, obligations or duties, or expectations.

Three contexts:

• Advice: recommending what someone ought to do.
• Obligations: duties or responsibilities.
• Expectations: what is likely or anticipated.

Examples:

• "Everyone should drink water every day" (advice).
• "The teacher should protect your personal information" (obligation).
• "Your food should arrive soon" (expectation).

🔁 WOULD – polite requests and past habits

Polite requests or repeated actions in the past.

• Used for courteous requests or expressing preferences.
• Also describes habitual actions that occurred repeatedly in the past.
• Example: "Would you help me finish this pie?" (polite request); "Whenever Elias needed help with writing, he would visit his professor" (repeated past action).

📊 Modal comparison table

Modal	Primary meaning	Formality	Time frame	Example use
CAN	Present ability, informal permission	Informal	Present	"I can write"
COULD	Past ability, polite requests	Informal/Polite	Past/Present	"Could you pass the salt?"
MAY	Formal permission, possibility	Formal	Present/Future	"May I go?"
MIGHT	Stronger possibility	Neutral	Present/Future	"It might rain"
MUST	Necessity, near certainty	Strong	Present/Future/Past	"You must mix for five minutes"
SHOULD	Advice, obligation, expectation	Neutral	Present/Future	"You should drink water"
WILL	Certainty, promise	Neutral	Future	"You will regret it"
WOULD	Polite requests, past habits	Polite	Present/Past	"He would visit his professor"

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Nouns are classified by multiple overlapping systems—common vs. proper, count vs. non-count, singular vs. plural, and specific vs. general—and these classifications determine which articles (the, a/an, or none) should be used with them.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core classification: nouns divide into common (general categories) vs. proper (specific names), and count (can be numbered) vs. non-count (cannot be plural).
• Article rules depend on noun type: "the" signals something identifiable; "a/an" signals a single non-specific item; no article signals a general category or all items.
• Common confusion: count nouns can take "a/an" and can be plural; non-count nouns never take "a/an" and never become plural, even though both are common nouns.
• Geographic names follow special patterns: some take "the" (rivers, canals, island groups, peninsulas) while others don't (single mountains/islands, most countries, cities, streets).

📚 Basic noun categories

🏷️ Common nouns

Common nouns: words that name general persons, places, or things, beginning with lowercase letters.

• These refer to categories, not specific individuals.
• Example: school, ignorance, sunshine, teacher, city.

🎯 Proper nouns

Proper nouns: words that name specific persons, places, or things, beginning with capital letters.

• These identify unique entities.
• Example: Mazama High School, Robin, Japan, President Obama, Lincoln Memorial, Enlightenment.
• Don't confuse: "teacher" (common) vs. "Professor Alan" (proper); "city" (common) vs. "Reno" (proper).

🔢 Countability and number

✅ Count nouns

Count nouns: common nouns that name things that can be counted, either singularly or plural.

• Can exist in both singular and plural forms.
• Example: boy/boys, town/towns, pigeon/pigeons, religion/religions.

❌ Non-count nouns

Non-count nouns: common nouns that name things or ideas that can't be counted or made plural.

• Always remain in one form; never add -s.
• Example: gold, rain, gravel, goodness, ignorance, air.
• The excerpt provides extensive lists organized by category:

Category	Examples
Food	beef, bread, butter, rice, sugar, water
Nonfood materials	air, cement, gold, paper, rain, snow, steel
Abstract concepts	advice, anger, beauty, courage, knowledge, wealth
Other	clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, traffic

🔢 Singular vs. plural

• Singular: any noun representing only one item (purse, county, man, Amazon River).
• Plural: count nouns representing several items (purses, counties, men, Cascade Mountains).
• Key distinction: non-count nouns never become plural, even if they represent large amounts.

🎯 Specificity: definite vs. indefinite

🔍 Specific (definite) nouns

Specific (definite) nouns: words that name people, places, or things that can be identified within a group of the same type.

• The listener/reader can pinpoint which one you mean.
• Example: "The students in Professor Alan's class" (not just any students, but those specific ones).
• Example: "The train carrying the President" (a particular train).

🌐 General (indefinite) nouns

General (indefinite) nouns: words that name categories of people, places, or things, often plural.

• Refer to the category as a whole, not specific members.
• Example: "Teachers should grade" (teachers in general, not specific ones).
• Example: "Plays help people connect" (the art form broadly).

📝 Article usage rules

📌 When to use "the"

Use "the" if a reader could identify the noun specifically.

• With count nouns: "Please turn off the lights" (specific lights in the room).
• With non-count nouns: "The food throughout Korea is excellent" (the food there, not food in general).

📌 When to use "a/an"

Use "a/an" if the noun refers to a single item that is not specific.

• Only with singular count nouns: "Bring an eraser to class."
• Never with plural or non-count nouns: you cannot say "a rice" or "a homeworks."

📌 When to use quantifiers

Use quantifiers (enough, many, some, etc.) for unspecified amounts more than one but not all.

• With count nouns: "Amanda showed us some souvenirs" / "Many birds go there."
• With non-count nouns: "We didn't get enough snow this winter."

📌 When to use no article

Use no article if the noun represents all items in a category or the category in general.

• With count nouns (plural): "Teachers can attend the game for free" (all teachers as a category).
• With non-count nouns: "Gold is a natural resource" (gold in general).

🗺️ Geographic names and "the"

❌ Don't use "the" with

Type	Examples
Single mountains or islands	Mount Hood, Madagascar
Most countries and continents	France, Algeria, North Korea, Australia, Antarctica
Streets, squares, and parks	Linden Street, Madison Square, Yosemite National Park
Bays and single lakes	Honolulu Bay, Lake Michigan
Cities, states, and counties	Reno, Florida, Howard County

✅ Use "the" with

Type	Examples
Groups of islands	the British Isles
Canals and rivers	the Suez Canal, the Mississippi
Peninsulas	the Arabian Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula
Country names with "of" phrase	the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of South [Africa]

Pattern to remember: single geographic features usually don't take "the"; groups, waterways, and countries with "of" phrases do take "the."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The choice of article (the, a/an, or no article) before common nouns depends on whether the noun is specific or general, countable or non-countable, and whether it refers to one item, some items, or an entire category.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Use "the" when a reader can identify the specific noun within its category (works with count and non-count nouns).
• Use "a/an" only for single, non-specific count nouns; never use with plural or non-count nouns.
• Use quantifiers (some, many, enough, etc.) for unspecified amounts that are more than one but not all.
• Use no article when referring to all items in a category or the category in general.
• Common confusion: count vs non-count nouns—count nouns can be made plural and take "a/an"; non-count nouns cannot be counted or made plural and never take "a/an."

📚 Noun types that affect article choice

🔢 Count nouns

Count nouns are common nouns that name general persons, places, or things that can be counted, either singularly or plural.

• These nouns can appear in both singular and plural forms.
• Example: boy/boys, town/towns, pigeon/pigeons, religion/religions.
• Why it matters: Count nouns can take "a/an" when singular and non-specific; they can also be made plural.

🌊 Non-count nouns

Non-count nouns are common nouns that name things or ideas that can't be counted or made plural.

• These nouns represent substances, abstract concepts, or mass items.
• Example: gold, rain, gravel, goodness, ignorance, air.
• Key restriction: Never use "a/an" with non-count nouns; they cannot be made plural.
• Don't confuse: Some nouns that seem countable in everyday speech are grammatically non-count (e.g., furniture, luggage, equipment).

🎯 Specific (definite) vs general (indefinite) nouns

Type	Definition	Example
Specific (definite)	Name people, places, or things that can be identified within a group of the same type	"The students in Professor Alan's class are very bright"
General (indefinite)	Name categories of people, places, or things; often plural	"Teachers should grade"

• Specific nouns point to particular members that the reader can identify from context.
• General nouns refer to the whole category or type, not particular instances.

🔤 Article rules for common nouns

🔍 When to use "the"

Rule: Use "the" if a reader could identify the noun specifically.

• Works with both count and non-count nouns.
• Example (count): "Please turn off the lights. We're not going to the museum tomorrow."
• Example (non-count): "The food throughout Korea is excellent."
• Why: "The" signals that the noun is definite—the reader knows which lights, which museum, or which food you mean.

🅰️ When to use "a/an"

Rule: Use "a/an" if the noun refers to a single item that is not specific.

• Critical restriction: Never use "a/an" with plural or non-count nouns.
• Example: "Bring an eraser to class. You'll be using a pencil to write an essay today."
• How it works: "A/an" introduces one member of a category without specifying which one.
• Don't confuse: "A/an" is only for singular count nouns; if the noun is plural or non-count, you must use a different strategy.

📊 When to use quantifiers

Rule: Use a quantifier (enough, many, some, etc.) if the noun represents an unspecified amount that is more than one but not all.

• Example (count): "Amanda showed us some souvenirs of her trip to New Orleans. Many birds go there in the summer."
• Example (non-count): "We didn't get enough snow this winter."
• Why: Quantifiers express partial amounts without making the noun fully specific or fully general.

∅ When to use no article

Rule: Use no article if the noun represents all items in a category or the category in general.

• Example (count): "Teachers can attend the game for free. Actors must report backstage by 5:00 p.m."
• Example (non-count): "Gold is a natural resource."
• How it works: Omitting the article signals you are talking about the entire class or concept, not specific instances.
• Don't confuse: No article for general categories vs "the" for specific members—"Teachers" (all teachers in general) vs "the teachers in this school" (specific group).

🗺️ Geographic nouns and "the"

🚫 Don't use "the" with these geographic types

Geographic type	Examples
Single mountains or islands	Mount Hood, Madagascar
Most countries and continents	France, Algeria, North Korea, Australia, Antarctica
Streets, squares, and parks	Linden Street, Madison Square, Yosemite National Park
Bays and single lakes	Honolulu Bay, Lake Michigan
Cities, states, and counties	Reno, Florida, Howard County

• Why: These are treated as proper nouns with inherent specificity; they don't need "the" to be definite.

✅ Use "the" with these geographic types

Geographic type	Examples
Groups of islands	the British Isles
Canals and rivers	the Suez Canal, the Mississippi
Peninsulas	the Arabian Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula
Country names with "of" phrase	the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of South Korea
Mountain ranges	the Cascades, the Andes
Oceans, seas, and gulfs	the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico
Large regions and deserts	the West Coast, the Gobi

• Why: These geographic features are often plural or represent collections/systems, so "the" is required.
• Don't confuse: Single mountain (Mount Hood, no "the") vs mountain range (the Cascades, with "the").

📋 Reference lists

🍞 Common non-count nouns by category

The excerpt provides lists to help identify non-count nouns:

Food: beef, bread, butter, candy, cereal, cheese, cream, meat, milk, pasta, rice, salt, sugar, water, wine

Nonfood materials: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool

Abstract concepts: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, wealth

Other categories: biology, clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, machinery, mail, money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work

• Why this matters: Recognizing these nouns helps you avoid the mistake of using "a/an" or making them plural.

📍 Prepositions for time and place

The excerpt provides guidance on "at," "on," and "in":

Time:

• At: 12:45, dusk, sunrise
• On: Friday, our anniversary
• In: the evening, June, 1990, "tested in forty minutes"

Place:

• At: the library, the edge, the signal, "yelling 'Surprise!' at Sophie"

• On: the fridge, "the building on Sixth Street," the stage

• In: the book, Seattle, my bedroom

• How to choose: "At" for specific points, "on" for surfaces and days, "in" for enclosed spaces and longer time periods.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Non-count nouns name things or ideas that cannot be counted or made plural, and they require different article rules than count nouns.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What non-count nouns are: common nouns that name things or ideas that can't be counted or made plural (e.g., gold, rain, goodness).
• How they differ from count nouns: count nouns can be singular or plural (boy/boys), but non-count nouns cannot be made plural.
• Article rules: never use a/an with non-count nouns; use the for specific references, quantifiers (some, enough) for unspecified amounts, or no article for general categories.
• Common confusion: non-count nouns can still use the when specific (e.g., "the food throughout Korea"), but they never take a/an or plural forms.
• Categories: non-count nouns include food items (rice, milk), nonfood materials (air, gold), abstract concepts (advice, happiness), and other categories (homework, traffic).

🔤 Understanding non-count nouns

🔤 Definition and core concept

Non-count nouns are common nouns that name things or ideas that can't be counted or made plural.

• These nouns represent substances, materials, or abstract ideas that are treated as wholes, not individual units.
• They contrast with count nouns, which can be singular or plural (boy/boys, town/towns).
• Example: "gold" is non-count—you cannot say "golds"; "rain" cannot become "rains" in the same way "pigeon" becomes "pigeons."

🆚 Count vs. non-count distinction

Feature	Count nouns	Non-count nouns
Can be counted	Yes (boy, boys)	No
Can be plural	Yes (towns, pigeons)	No
Examples	boy, town, pigeon, religion	gold, rain, gravel, goodness, ignorance, air

• Don't confuse: some words may seem countable but are treated as non-count in English (e.g., "furniture," "homework," "advice").

📋 Categories of non-count nouns

🍞 Food items

• Beef, bread, butter, candy, cereal, cheese, cream, meat, milk, pasta, rice, salt, sugar, water, wine
• These represent substances or materials consumed as wholes, not individual pieces.

🪨 Nonfood materials

• Air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
• Physical substances that are measured by volume or mass, not by individual units.

💭 Abstract concepts

• Advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, wealth
• Ideas and qualities that cannot be physically counted.

📦 Other categories

• Biology, clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, machinery, mail, money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
• Collective or general categories that encompass multiple items but are treated as singular wholes.

📰 Article rules for non-count nouns

📰 When to use the

Use the if a reader could identify the noun specifically.

• Example: "The food throughout Korea is excellent."
• The non-count noun "food" is made specific by the phrase "throughout Korea."
• This rule applies to both count and non-count nouns when the reference is definite.

🚫 Never use a/an

Never use a/an with plural or non-count nouns.

• A/an indicates a single, non-specific item, which only works with singular count nouns.
• Example (correct): "Bring an eraser to class" (count noun).
• Example (incorrect): You cannot say "a gold" or "an advice."
• Don't confuse: even though non-count nouns are singular in form, they cannot take a/an.

🔢 Using quantifiers

Use a quantifier such as enough, many, some, etc. if the noun represents an unspecified amount and that amount is more than one but not all.

• For non-count nouns: "We didn't get enough snow this winter."
• For count nouns: "Amanda showed us some souvenirs."
• Quantifiers allow you to indicate amount without making the noun plural.

∅ No article for general categories

Use no article if the noun represents all items in a category or the category in general.

• Example (count): "Teachers can attend the game for free."
• Example (non-count): "Gold is a natural resource."
• This rule applies when making broad statements about entire categories, not specific instances.

🗺️ Geographic nouns and the

🗺️ When NOT to use the

• Single mountains or islands: Mount Hood, Madagascar
• Most countries and continents: France, Algeria, North Korea, Australia, Antarctica
• Streets, squares, and parks: Linden Street, Madison Square, Yosemite National Park
• Bays and single lakes: Honolulu Bay, Lake Michigan
• Cities, states, and counties: Reno, Florida, Howard County

🗺️ When to use the

• Groups of islands: the British Isles
• Canals and rivers: the Suez Canal, the Mississippi
• Peninsulas: the Arabian Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula
• Country names with of phrase: the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of South Korea
• Mountain ranges: the Cascades, the Andes
• Oceans, seas, and gulfs: the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico
• Large regions and deserts: the West Coast, the Gobi

Don't confuse: single geographic features (Mount Hood) vs. groups or ranges (the Cascades)—the pattern is about whether the feature is singular or collective.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The definite article "the" is used with certain geographic nouns (groups, ranges, bodies of water with specific features) but omitted with others (single features, most countries, cities), following predictable patterns based on whether the feature is singular or grouped.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core rule: single geographic features (mountains, islands, lakes) typically take no article; groups or ranges take "the."
• Bodies of water: rivers, canals, oceans, seas, and gulfs require "the"; single bays and lakes do not.
• Country names: most countries take no article, but country names containing an "of" phrase require "the."
• Common confusion: distinguishing single features from groups—Mount Hood vs. the Cascades; Madagascar vs. the British Isles.
• Administrative divisions: cities, states, counties, streets, squares, and parks never take "the."

🏔️ Single geographic features (no article)

🏔️ Single mountains or islands

Single mountains or islands: do not use "the."

• These are individual, named features, not collections.
• Example: Mount Hood, Madagascar.
• Don't confuse: a single island (Madagascar) vs. a group of islands (the British Isles).

🌍 Most countries and continents

Most countries and continents: do not use "the."

• The vast majority of country and continent names stand alone.
• Example: France, Algeria, North Korea, Australia, Antarctica.
• Exception: if the country name includes an "of" phrase, use "the" (see below).

🏙️ Administrative and urban features

Streets, squares, parks, cities, states, and counties: do not use "the."

• These are specific named places within human-made or political boundaries.
• Examples:
  • Streets: Linden Street
  • Squares: Madison Square
  • Parks: Yosemite National Park
  • Cities: Reno
  • States: Florida
  • Counties: Howard County

🏖️ Single bays and lakes

Bays and single lakes: do not use "the."

• A single, named bay or lake is treated like a single mountain or island.
• Example: Honolulu Bay, Lake Michigan.
• Don't confuse: a single lake (Lake Michigan) vs. a group of lakes or a sea (the Mediterranean Sea).

🌊 Groups and extended features (use "the")

🏝️ Groups of islands

Groups of islands: use "the."

• When multiple islands form a named group, the article is required.
• Example: the British Isles.
• Contrast: Madagascar (single island, no article) vs. the British Isles (group, requires "the").

🏞️ Mountain ranges

Mountain ranges: use "the."

• A range is a collection of mountains, not a single peak.
• Example: the Cascades, the Andes.
• Contrast: Mount Hood (single mountain, no article) vs. the Cascades (range, requires "the").

🌊 Rivers, canals, oceans, seas, and gulfs

Canals, rivers, oceans, seas, and gulfs: use "the."

• These are extended or large bodies of water, often with directional or descriptive names.
• Examples:
  • Canals: the Suez Canal
  • Rivers: the Mississippi
  • Oceans: the Atlantic Ocean
  • Seas: the Mediterranean Sea
  • Gulfs: the Gulf of Mexico
• Don't confuse: a single bay (Honolulu Bay, no article) vs. a gulf or sea (the Gulf of Mexico, requires "the").

🏜️ Peninsulas, large regions, and deserts

Peninsulas, large regions, and deserts: use "the."

• These are extended landforms or broad geographic areas.
• Examples:
  • Peninsulas: the Arabian Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula
  • Large regions: the West Coast
  • Deserts: the Gobi

🇰🇷 Special case: country names with "of"

🇰🇷 Countries containing an "of" phrase

Country names with an "of" phrase: use "the."

• When a country's official name includes "of," the article is required.
• Examples:
  • the Democratic Republic of Congo
  • the Republic of South Korea
• Contrast: North Korea (no "of" phrase, no article) vs. the Republic of South Korea (contains "of," requires "the").

📋 Summary table

Geographic feature	Use "the"?	Examples
Single mountains or islands	❌ No	Mount Hood, Madagascar
Most countries and continents	❌ No	France, Algeria, Australia, Antarctica
Streets, squares, parks	❌ No	Linden Street, Madison Square, Yosemite National Park
Bays, single lakes	❌ No	Honolulu Bay, Lake Michigan
Cities, states, counties	❌ No	Reno, Florida, Howard County
Groups of islands	✅ Yes	the British Isles
Canals and rivers	✅ Yes	the Suez Canal, the Mississippi
Peninsulas	✅ Yes	the Arabian Peninsula, the Iberian Peninsula
Country names with "of" phrase	✅ Yes	the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of South Korea
Mountain ranges	✅ Yes	the Cascades, the Andes
Oceans, seas, gulfs	✅ Yes	the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico
Large regions and deserts	✅ Yes	the West Coast, the Gobi

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

When multiple adjectives modify a single noun, they must follow a specific nine-category sequence from article through noun-adjective to maintain grammatical correctness in English.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The fixed order: cumulative adjectives follow a strict nine-step sequence: article → evaluative → size → length/shape → age → color → nationality → material → noun/adjective.
• What cumulative adjectives are: multiple adjectives that all directly modify the same noun and must appear in a prescribed order.
• How to apply the rule: identify each adjective's category, then arrange them according to the numbered sequence.
• Common confusion: not all adjective combinations sound natural—the order is mandatory, but overloading a noun with many adjectives can still be awkward even when correctly ordered.

📋 The nine-category sequence

🔢 The complete ordering system

The excerpt provides a numbered list that defines the mandatory order:

Position	Category	Examples from excerpt
1	Article (or other Noun Marker)	a, an, the, her, this, my, Joe's, two, many, some
2	Evaluative Word	repulsive, lazy, gross, beautiful, magical
3	Size	miniscule, small, large, gargantuan
4	Length/Shape	short, oval, long, diamond
5	Age	new, young, old, ancient
6	Color	orange, cerulean, red
7	Nationality	German, Chilean, Korean
8	Material	pewter, wood, silk, granite
9	Noun/Adjective	safe (as in safe room), mobile (as in mobile home)

🎯 What each category means

• Article/Noun Marker (Position 1): determiners that specify which or how many items; includes possessives (Joe's, my) and quantifiers (two, many, some).
• Evaluative Word (Position 2): subjective judgments about quality or character (beautiful, repulsive, lazy).
• Size (Position 3): physical magnitude from tiny to huge.
• Length/Shape (Position 4): dimensional descriptors (short, oval, diamond).
• Age (Position 5): how old or new something is.
• Color (Position 6): any color descriptor.
• Nationality (Position 7): geographic or ethnic origin.
• Material (Position 8): what the noun is made of (wood, silk, granite).
• Noun/Adjective (Position 9): nouns functioning as adjectives that create compound concepts (safe room, mobile home).

🧪 Applying the rule

📝 The example provided

The excerpt gives one demonstration:

Example: My collection includes ten large new figurines.

Breaking down this example:

• ten = Article/Noun Marker (position 1) — quantifier
• large = Size (position 3)
• new = Age (position 5)
• figurines = the noun being modified

Notice that not all nine positions are filled—only the relevant categories appear, but they maintain the prescribed sequence (1 → 3 → 5).

⚙️ How to use the system

1. Identify all adjectives modifying the same noun.
2. Classify each adjective into one of the nine categories.
3. Arrange them in numerical order (1 through 9).
4. Any category without a corresponding adjective is simply skipped.

Example construction: If you want to describe a container with multiple attributes:

• Article: a
• Evaluative: beautiful
• Size: small
• Shape: oval
• Age: antique
• Material: pewter
• Noun/Adjective: jewelry (as in jewelry box)
• Result: "a beautiful small oval antique pewter jewelry box"

⚠️ Don't confuse with coordinate adjectives

The excerpt focuses on cumulative adjectives—those that build on each other in a fixed order. This is different from coordinate adjectives (which can be reordered and separated by commas), though the excerpt does not explicitly discuss this distinction. The key signal: cumulative adjectives sound wrong in any other order.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The prepositions "at," "on," and "in" follow systematic patterns for expressing both time and place, making them essential tools for clear English communication.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core function: These three prepositions help show either time or place in English sentences.
• Time patterns: "at" for specific moments, "on" for days/dates, "in" for longer periods (months, years, parts of day).
• Place patterns: "at" for specific locations/points, "on" for surfaces/streets, "in" for enclosed spaces/cities.
• Common confusion: The same word changes meaning based on whether it refers to time or place—"at the library" (place) vs "at dusk" (time).

⏰ Using prepositions for time

⏰ "At" for specific moments

• Use "at" when referring to precise points in time.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • at 12:45
  • at dusk
  • at sunrise
• These represent exact moments or specific times of day.

📅 "On" for days and dates

• Use "on" when referring to specific days or occasions.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • on Friday
  • on our anniversary
• Pattern: days of the week and special dates take "on."

📆 "In" for longer time periods

• Use "in" for parts of the day, months, years, and durations.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • in the evening
  • in June
  • in 1990
  • tested in forty minutes
• Pattern: broader time frames or periods within which something occurs.

📍 Using prepositions for place

📍 "At" for specific locations

• Use "at" to indicate a specific point or location.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • at the library
  • standing at the edge
  • walking at the signal
  • yelling 'Surprise!' at Sophie
• Think of "at" as pinpointing a spot or directing action toward someone/something.

🏢 "On" for surfaces and streets

• Use "on" when something is positioned on a surface or located on a street.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • on the fridge
  • the building on Sixth Street
  • on the stage
• Pattern: physical contact with a surface or street-level location.

🏙️ "In" for enclosed spaces

• Use "in" for enclosed areas, cities, rooms, and containers.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • in the book
  • in Seattle
  • in my bedroom
• Pattern: something contained within boundaries or inside a space.

🔄 Distinguishing the three prepositions

Preposition	Time usage	Place usage	Key distinction
At	Specific moments (at noon)	Specific points (at the door)	Precision—exact time or location
On	Days/dates (on Monday)	Surfaces/streets (on the table)	Contact—specific day or physical surface
In	Longer periods (in March)	Enclosed spaces (in the room)	Containment—within a timeframe or space

🔍 Don't confuse

• The same preposition serves different purposes depending on context.
• "At" can mean a precise time moment OR a specific location point.
• "In" can mean within a time period OR inside a physical space.
• The noun following the preposition determines whether it's about time or place.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Certain adjectives and verbs in English require specific prepositions to follow them, forming fixed combinations that learners must memorize.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Fixed combinations: Many adjectives pair with specific prepositions (e.g., "afraid of," "interested in").
• Verb + preposition patterns: Verbs also form fixed combinations with particular prepositions (e.g., "agree with," "depend on").
• Not interchangeable: You cannot substitute prepositions freely; each adjective or verb has its own required preposition.
• Common confusion: Similar-meaning words may take different prepositions (e.g., "married to" vs. "engaged to" vs. "engaged in").

📚 Adjective + Preposition combinations

🔗 How these combinations work

Adjective + preposition combinations: fixed pairings where specific adjectives must be followed by particular prepositions.

• These are not based on logical rules; they are conventional patterns in English.
• The preposition does not change based on context—each adjective has its standard preposition.
• Example: You say "afraid of" (not "afraid about" or "afraid with").

📋 Common patterns by preposition

With "of":

• afraid of, ashamed of, full of, guilty of, made of, proud of, scared of, tired of

With "to":

• accustomed to, addicted to, committed to, connected to, dedicated to, devoted to, engaged to, married to, opposed to, preferable to, similar to

With "in":

• engaged in, interested in, involved in

With "about":

• concerned about, excited about, worried about

With "with":

• angry with, covered with, familiar with, involved with, satisfied with

With "for":

• known for, responsible for

With "from":

• different from, made from

With "as":

• known as

⚠️ Watch for similar words with different prepositions

• "engaged to" (a person) vs. "engaged in" (an activity)
• "made of" vs. "made from"
• "concerned about" vs. "concerned with"
• "involved in" vs. "involved with"

Don't confuse: The same word can take different prepositions depending on meaning.

🎯 Verb + Preposition combinations

🔗 How verb combinations work

• Like adjectives, many verbs require specific prepositions to complete their meaning.
• The preposition is part of the verb's pattern and cannot be changed.
• Example: You "depend on" someone (not "depend to" or "depend with").

📋 Common patterns by preposition

With "to":

• apply to, belong to, compare to, happen to, listen to, reply to, respond to, speak to

With "on":

• concentrate on, count on, decide on, depend on, insist on, rely on, wait on

With "for":

• ask for, care for, hope for, search for, wait for

With "about":

• care about, dream about, forget about, think about, worry about

With "in":

• arrive in, believe in, participate in, result in, succeed in

With "at":

• arrive at, stare at, succeed at

With "of":

• approve of, consist of, dream of, take advantage of, take care of, think of

With "with":

• agree with, compare with, disagree with, speak with

With "from":

• differ from

⚠️ Watch for verbs with multiple prepositions

• "arrive at" (a specific place) vs. "arrive in" (a city/country)
• "dream about" vs. "dream of"
• "think about" vs. "think of"
• "wait for" (something to come) vs. "wait on" (serve someone)
• "speak to" vs. "speak with"
• "compare to" vs. "compare with"
• "succeed at" vs. "succeed in"

Don't confuse: The preposition can change the verb's meaning or context.

💡 Learning strategy

📝 Memorization approach

• These combinations must be learned as fixed units, not derived from rules.
• When learning a new adjective or verb, learn its preposition partner at the same time.
• Practice by creating example sentences using the complete combination.
• Example: "I am interested in learning languages" (not "interested about" or "interested for").

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Certain English verbs consistently pair with specific prepositions to form fixed expressions that learners must memorize as complete units.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What this is: a reference list of verb + preposition combinations that function as fixed phrases in English.
• Why it matters: these combinations are idiomatic—you cannot predict which preposition goes with which verb by logic alone.
• How to use it: treat each pairing as a single unit to memorize (e.g., "agree with," "apply to," "arrive at").
• Common confusion: similar verbs may take different prepositions (e.g., "arrive at" vs. "arrive in"), and the same verb can pair with different prepositions for different meanings (e.g., "wait for" vs. "wait on").

📚 The verb-preposition list

🔤 Core pairings

The excerpt provides a reference table of verb + preposition combinations. Each pairing is a fixed expression:

• agree with
• apply to
• approve of
• arrive at / arrive in
• ask for
• believe in
• belong to
• care about / care for
• compare to / compare with
• concentrate on
• consist of
• count on
• decide on
• depend on
• differ from
• disagree with
• dream about / dream of
• feel like
• forget about
• happen to
• hope for
• insist on
• listen to
• participate in
• rely on
• reply to
• respond to
• result in
• search for
• speak to / speak with
• stare at
• succeed at / succeed in
• take advantage of
• take care of
• think about / think of
• wait for / wait on

⚠️ Verbs with multiple prepositions

Some verbs appear with more than one preposition, indicating different meanings or contexts:

Verb	Prepositions	Note
arrive	at / in	Different prepositions for different contexts
care	about / for	Different meanings
compare	to / with	Different comparison types
dream	about / of	Different nuances
speak	to / with	Different contexts
succeed	at / in	Different contexts
think	about / of	Different meanings
wait	for / on	Different meanings

Don't confuse: The same verb with different prepositions creates different meanings—these are not interchangeable.

🎯 How to learn these combinations

💡 Memorization strategy

• These pairings are idiomatic: you cannot deduce the correct preposition from the verb's meaning alone.
• Each verb + preposition combination should be learned as a single vocabulary item.
• Example: When you learn "depend," learn "depend on" as the complete phrase, not as two separate words.

🔍 Why logic doesn't help

The excerpt presents these as a list without explanations because the pairings are conventional rather than logical.

• You cannot predict that "agree" takes "with" while "approve" takes "of" by analyzing the verbs' meanings.
• Native patterns and historical usage determine these combinations, not grammatical rules.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

A systematic, mechanical approach to re-reading your own draft—by comparing introduction and conclusion, organizing sections coherently, connecting evidence to claims, and acknowledging complexity—helps you diagnose how readers will experience your argument.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Find your best point: the conclusion often states a more specific, substantive claim than the introduction; revise the introduction to match or anticipate it.
• Point-first vs point-last: stating your main point at the beginning keeps both you and your reader focused, while point-last requires high skill and risks confusion.
• Evidence must be unpacked: quotations and data rarely speak for themselves; you must explain how they support your claim.
• Common confusion: strong writing vs. unnuanced certainty—academic readers value writers who acknowledge reservations and counter-evidence, not those who insist on absolute correctness.
• Coherent sections: each major section needs its own point and a logical relationship to other sections, not just "first, second, third" numbering.

🎯 Finding and framing your main point

🎯 Locate candidates in introduction and conclusion

• Draw a line after your introduction and before your conclusion.
• Underline one sentence in each that comes closest to your main point or thesis.
• In the introduction, it's usually the last sentence; in the conclusion, it can be anywhere.
• Compare the two sentences—they should not contradict each other.

💡 The conclusion is often stronger

The sentence in your conclusion will likely be more specific, more substantive, more thoughtful than the one in your introduction.

• Your introduction may only announce a general intention; your conclusion makes a more important claim about the topic.
• Example from the excerpt:
  • Introduction: "artists shared in creating identity through depictions of experience" (general, readers probably already believe this).
  • Conclusion: "Armstrong and Motley created art which included elements of the community's history and made this history central" (specific about what they did, how they did it, and hints at controversy).
• The conclusion adds specificity: which element of experience, what the artists actually did, and that some opposed this approach.

🔄 Revise the introduction to match

Two strategies:

1. Insert the conclusion's point at the end of your introduction (you may need to revise the rest to fit).
2. Anticipate the point by using some of the same language or posing implicit questions that lead to your conclusion.

Don't confuse: anticipating vs. giving away—an anticipatory sentence doesn't state your conclusion but uses language that sets up the questions your conclusion will answer.

Example: "they reflected their community's struggle to define the role of historical experience in modern culture" introduces implicit questions (did they use it? how?) without concluding the answer.

📍 Choosing where to state your point

📍 Point-first: the default choice

• State your main point explicitly at the end of your introduction.
• Why it works: readers won't lose track of your argument; you stay focused on where you're headed.
• Don't worry: professors won't lose interest if you state your point first—they'll read on to see how you support it.

🎭 Point-last: high-risk, high-skill

• Some instructors (mostly in humanities) prefer papers that pose a problem, then work toward a conclusion.
• Creates dramatic tension and shows your thinking process.
• The risk: your actual thinking process is "messy, inefficient, and hard to follow"—few instructors want to see that.
• What they want: "a coherent, ordered, analytical account of your thinking" that only seems to be a narrative but is "an artful invention."
• Requires "writing skills of a high order."

When to choose point-last: only if you're a skilled writer and willing to spend extra time ensuring the paper plausibly leads readers to your conclusion.

🧩 Creating coherent sections

🧩 Identify major sections

• A four- or five-page paper should have at least two and probably not more than three or four major sections.
• Draw lines between each major section.

🔍 Analyze each section like the whole paper

For each section:

• Find its introduction and conclusion: mark where the section's introduction ends (may be one sentence or a paragraph) and where its conclusion begins (short sections may not need a separate conclusion).
• Identify the section's point: each section should have a sentence offering a generalization, claim, or point that the section supports.
• Decide point-first or point-last for the section: if you choose point-last, write an introductory sentence using key words from the concluding point sentence.

Nothing confuses a reader more than moving from paragraph to paragraph with no sense of the logical progression of your argument.

🔗 Order sections logically

Ask yourself why you put sections in their current order:

• Not acceptable: "that's the order they occurred to me."
• Beware organization-by-number: "for three reasons. First... Second... Third..." suggests unsophisticated thinking; significant arguments have substantive relationships, not just numerical ones.

Ordering principle	Question to ask yourself
Cause-to-effect	Why not effect-to-cause?
Echoing the text	Are you just summarizing instead of arguing?
Matching assignment terms	Did the instructor want something more original?
Order in assignment	Did you write about Freud first only because the assignment listed him first?

Key principle: identify your ordering principle and justify it as the best choice among many possible.

🔗 Connecting evidence to claims

🔗 Evidence alone is not enough

Without such evidence, your claims are merely statements of opinion.

• You're entitled to your opinions, but not to readers agreeing with them.
• Readers won't value your opinions unless you provide evidence.
• Evidence turns opinions into arguments.

🔓 Unpack your quotations

No flaw more afflicts the papers of less experienced writers than to make some sort of claim, offer a quotation from the text, and assume that the reader understands how the quotation speaks to the claim.

Bad example:

• Claim: "Lincoln believed that the Founders would have supported the North"
• Evidence: the country was "dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."
• Problem: How does a statement about 1776 support a claim about what the Founders would think in 1863? It's not obvious.

Better approach: spell out the connection.

• Use a few key words from the quotation just before or after it.
• Example: "they would have supported his attempt to move the slaves to a more equal position. He echoes the Founder's own language when he says..."

📊 All data needs interpretation

• This applies to numbers, charts, pictures, and especially quotations.
• Don't assume "what you see is what your readers will get."
• If you only string together quotations, your paper suggests "your data never passed through the critical analysis of a working mind."

🎚️ Balancing confidence and nuance

🎚️ Avoid flat-footed certainty

Some inexperienced writers think that the strongest and most persuasive kind of writing projects a voice of utter confidence, complete certainty, and no room for doubt.

That view could not be more mistaken.

• No one wants to talk with someone who is "UTTERLY CERTAIN OF EVERYTHING WITH NO QUALIFICATIONS, RESERVATIONS, OR LIMITATIONS."
• Compare three versions in the excerpt:
  1. Too strident: "every liberal has vehemently argued... no one remembers... simply ceased to exist" (wearisome, unnuanced).
  2. Too hedged: "many liberals... fairly persuasive... just about ceased" (mealy-mouthed).
  3. Balanced: "liberals have been arguing... so persuasive that few now remember... largely ceased to exist" (neither proclaims nor over-hedges).

🔄 Acknowledge counter-evidence

• No matter what position you take, there will almost always be evidence someone can use to disagree.
• Strategy: look for counter-evidence yourself before readers do, then include it in your essay.
• You can acknowledge it and rebut it, or suggest the weight of evidence is still on your side.

Don't worry: including counter-evidence makes your argument more persuasive, not less.

Most academic readers are much more persuaded by writers who admit reservations than by writers who insist that they are always absolutely correct.

🧠 Recognize complexity

• Avoid "flat-footed, unnuanced, unsophisticated certainty."
• Things are usually "more complex, less clear-cut, than most of us wish."
• Different fields and writers have different opinions about hedging, but "most of us share a sense of caution."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective revision requires anticipating objections, acknowledging counter-evidence, and ensuring your draft addresses reader concerns with clear organization and appropriate nuance.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Anticipate objections: consider counter-evidence and alternative conclusions before readers do, then address them in your essay.
• Acknowledge complexity: admitting reservations and counter-evidence makes arguments more persuasive to academic readers, not less.
• Common confusion: writers often fear that including objections will weaken their argument, but the opposite is true—ignoring complexity signals unsophisticated thinking.
• Structural essentials: thesis clarity, relevance of all ideas, organizational cues, and logical order are fundamental revision targets.

🛡️ Handling objections and counter-evidence

🔍 Why anticipate objections

• The shrewd writer considers objections before readers do.
• After constructing your argument, skim your reading again specifically looking for evidence that might support a different conclusion.
• This proactive approach strengthens credibility.

🧩 How to incorporate counter-evidence

• Raise the objection: acknowledge the counter-evidence or alternative claim explicitly in your essay.
• Rebut if possible: if you can refute the objection, do so.
• Weigh the evidence: even if you can't fully rebut the objection, suggest that the weight of evidence still supports your side.
• Example: A writer arguing for one interpretation of Lincoln's intent might acknowledge that Lincoln never explicitly states the Founders would support the Union, then argue that the overall evidence still points to the writer's conclusion.

⚖️ The persuasive power of nuance

Most academic readers are much more persuaded by writers who admit reservations than by writers who insist that they are always absolutely correct.

• Don't worry that including counter-evidence will weaken your argument—the opposite is true.
• Avoid: flat-footed, unnuanced, unsophisticated certainty.
• Why: such certainty characterizes thinking that does not recognize that things are usually more complex and less clear-cut than we wish.
• Don't confuse: admitting complexity with undermining your position; nuance signals sophisticated thinking.

✅ Core revision checklist elements

🎯 Audience and purpose

• Reader care: the draft addresses a question or issue that readers will care about.
• Audience level: the draft is written at the audience's level, accounting for their knowledge and attitudes.

📍 Thesis and relevance

• Thesis clarity: the thesis is clear and placed at or near the beginning of the paper.
• Coherence: all ideas within the draft relate to the main thesis.

🗺️ Organization and flow

• Organizational cues: there are plenty of cues (topic sentences, headings, etc.) to help guide readers through the paper.
• Logical order: ideas are presented in an order that makes sense.
• The checklist mentions paragraphs but the excerpt cuts off before completing that point.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Strong academic writing anticipates objections and includes counter-evidence to demonstrate nuanced thinking, which makes arguments more persuasive rather than less.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core strategy: After building your argument, actively search for evidence that might support a different conclusion.
• What to do with counter-evidence: Acknowledge it in your essay, rebut it if possible, or show that the weight of evidence still favors your position.
• Common confusion: Including objections weakens your argument vs. reality—admitting reservations makes you more persuasive to academic readers.
• Why it matters: Avoiding flat-footed certainty demonstrates sophisticated thinking that recognizes complexity.
• Revision checklist essentials: Address reader concerns, match audience level, state thesis clearly, maintain focus, and provide organizational cues.

🔍 Anticipating objections before readers do

🔍 The proactive search for counter-evidence

• After constructing your initial argument, deliberately skim your reading again with a specific goal: look for evidence that might support a different conclusion.
• This is not about undermining yourself—it's about thinking like a shrewd writer who considers objections before readers encounter them.
• Example: The excerpt discusses Lincoln's Gettysburg Address—while Lincoln may have let readers associate the Founders with the North, he doesn't explicitly say they would have supported the Union. He describes what they did in the past but not what they would do in the present.

🛡️ Including objections strengthens your argument

The excerpt challenges a common assumption:

"Don't worry that including counter evidence will make your argument less persuasive. On the contrary."

Why counter-evidence helps:

• Most academic readers are more persuaded by writers who admit reservations than by those who insist they are always absolutely correct.
• Exceptions exist, but this is the general rule in academic writing.

Don't confuse:

• Weakness = admitting you might be wrong about everything
• Strength = acknowledging complexity while maintaining your overall position

🎯 How to handle counter-evidence

🎯 Three approaches in order of preference

Approach	What to do	When to use
Acknowledge and rebut	Raise the counter-evidence and explain why it doesn't overturn your claim	When you can show the objection has flaws or limitations
Acknowledge and weigh	Admit you can't fully rebut it, but suggest the weight of evidence is still on your side	When counter-evidence is valid but your evidence is stronger
Acknowledge	Simply raise the evidence and counterclaim	When you need to show awareness even if you can't resolve it

🧩 What you're really demonstrating

• Avoiding "flat-footed, unnuanced, unsophisticated certainty"
• Recognizing that things are usually more complex and less clear-cut than most people wish
• Showing the kind of thinking that characterizes someone who understands complexity

✅ Revision checklist essentials

✅ Reader-focused elements

• Reader care: The draft addresses a question or issue that readers will care about
• Audience level: Written accounting for readers' level of knowledge and attitudes
• Thesis clarity: The thesis is clear and placed at or near the beginning of the paper

✅ Structural elements

• Focus: All ideas within the draft relate to the main thesis
• Organizational cues: Plenty of topic sentences, headings, etc. to guide readers through the paper
• Logical order: Ideas are presented in an order that makes sense
• Paragraph structure: (The excerpt ends here but implies paragraphs should be well-organized)