Introduction to Community Psychology

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community Psychology emerged as a field that shifts focus from individual treatment to prevention and systemic change, addressing social problems through ecological understanding and social justice interventions that tackle root causes rather than symptoms.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Prevention over treatment: The field emphasizes preventing problems before they occur (second-order change) rather than treating individuals after problems develop (first-order change).
• Social justice orientation: Community Psychology recognizes that many problems stem from structural inequalities and resource disparities, not just individual deficits.
• Ecological perspective: Problems are understood across multiple interconnected levels—individual, family, neighborhood, community, and policy—rather than focusing solely on individuals.
• Common confusion: First-order vs. second-order change—first-order treats symptoms one person at a time (like a lifeguard rescuing drowners); second-order addresses root causes for entire communities (like installing railings to prevent falls).
• Collaborative approach: The field values active citizen participation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and community empowerment rather than top-down professional interventions.

🏥 From Medical Model to Community Approach

🏥 The traditional medical model

Medical model: A therapeutic approach where clinicians treat people with psychological problems one at a time by trying to change thought patterns, perceptions, or behavior, typically through office-based psychotherapy.

• Most people imagine psychologists as therapists working individually with patients in office settings.
• This mirrors medicine: a physician fixes a broken arm or prescribes antibiotics for one patient at a time.
• While necessary, this approach has limitations: many people lack access to services, and it cannot solve large-scale community problems.

🌱 Origins of Community Psychology

The field emerged in the 1960s during a period of social upheaval in the US:

• Historical context: Vietnam War protests, Civil Rights Movement, urban unrest, and demonstrations.
• Professional dissatisfaction: Many psychologists wanted to address pressing societal issues beyond individual therapy.
• 1965 Swampscott Conference: The term "Community Psychology" was first used, signaling new roles for psychologists.

Key shifts from traditional psychology:

• Extending services to under-represented populations
• Focusing on prevention rather than just treatment
• Actively involving community members in the change process

🎯 Core themes that developed

Over five decades, three recurring themes emerged:

1. Prevention: Stopping problems before they start
2. Social justice: Addressing inequitable resource distribution
3. Ecological understanding: Examining people within their environmental contexts

Don't confuse: Community Psychology doesn't reject individual treatment—it adds prevention and systemic change as essential complementary approaches.

🛡️ Prevention as a Core Strategy

🛡️ The lifeguard analogy

A powerful example illustrates the prevention concept:

Scenario: A lifeguard at a beach repeatedly rescues people who fall from cliffs or wade too deep without swimming skills. She realizes she cannot save everyone and proposes installing railings on cliffs and teaching swimming lessons. After convincing town officials to fund these changes, drownings decrease.

Key insight: Rescuing individuals one by one (first-order change) never addresses why people are drowning in the first place.

🔄 First-order vs. second-order change

Type	Definition	Example	Limitation
First-order change	Attempts to eliminate deficits by focusing exclusively on individuals	Lifeguard rescuing drowning people one at a time	Doesn't identify or address root causes; problems continue
Second-order change	Addresses the source of problems to provide enduring solutions for entire communities	Installing railings and teaching swimming skills	Requires identifying systemic causes and securing resources

🎓 Real-world prevention success

The High/Scope Perry Preschool program demonstrates long-term prevention impact:

• Low-income African American children participated in a preventive learning preschool program.
• 40 years later: Participants showed better high school completion, employment, income, and lower criminal behavior.
• This illustrates how early intervention can create lasting positive change.

🏥 Public Health model influence

Public Health model: An approach that provides services to groups of people at risk for a disease or disorder to prevent them from developing it.

Community Psychology adopted this preventive approach:

• Services target groups rather than individuals
• Focus on preventing problems through interventions like immunizations
• Seeks to eliminate environmental sources of disease outbreaks

Important distinction: Public Health focuses on medical prevention; Community Psychology applies similar principles to social and psychological problems while adding unique characteristics like community participation and empowerment.

🚭 Tobacco prevention case study

A comprehensive example of prevention creating second-order change:

Background: In the 1960s, the Surgeon General's Report documented serious health problems from smoking.

Multi-level interventions:

• Advocacy groups created non-smoking sections on planes and public transportation
• Organizations promoted nonsmokers' rights in public buildings, restaurants, and workplaces
• School and community-based prevention programs
• Efforts to reduce youth access to tobacco

Youth Tobacco Prevention (Case Study 1.1):

1. Problem identification: Students told researcher Leonard Jason that stores openly sold them cigarettes.
2. Research: Jason's team found 80% of Chicago-area stores sold cigarettes to minors.
3. Community collaboration: Officer Bruce Talbot from Woodridge, Illinois partnered with Jason.
4. Local action: Woodridge passed legislation fining vendors and minors; illegal sales dropped from 70% to less than 5%.
5. National impact: Woodridge became the first US city to demonstrate effective legislation; Officer Talbot became a national authority and testified at congressional hearings.
6. Policy change: The federal Synar Amendment required states to reduce illegal tobacco sales to minors, resulting in a 21% nationwide decrease in tenth graders becoming daily smokers.

Key lesson: This bottom-up approach—where concerned individuals, community activists, and coalitions drive policy change—demonstrates how community psychologists can support broad-based preventive efforts.

⚖️ Social Justice Orientation

⚖️ Why social justice matters

Community Psychology recognizes that many social problems stem from disproportionate resource allocation:

Evidence of inequality:

• Economic inequalities cause stress, anxiety, and serious health problems
• Adult incomes vary significantly by race and gender
• Studies show health and social problems are caused by large societal inequalities

Critical psychology perspective:

Critical psychology: A perspective that examines how oppressive social systems preserve classism, sexism, racism, homophobia, and other forms of discrimination and domination that perpetuate social injustice.

🏫 Beyond individual explanations

Traditional mental health approaches often miss systemic causes:

Example: Urban schools dealing with lack of resources, overcrowded classrooms, gang activity, and violence.

• First-order approach: Provide therapy for individual students' mental health issues.
• Limitation: Doesn't address income inequalities and stressful environmental factors causing problems.
• Second-order approach: Collaborative partnerships to bring more resources to schools and community-based efforts to reduce gang activity and violence.

Research evidence: Zimmerman and colleagues found that improving physical features of neighborhoods (fixing abandoned housing, cutting grass, picking up trash, planting gardens) resulted in nearly 40% fewer assaults and violent crimes.

🔒 Criminal justice system example

The social justice perspective reveals structural forces behind mass incarceration:

Individualistic view: People end up in prison due to mental illness, substance abuse, or domestic violence.

Social justice view: Larger structural forces must be considered:

• More restrictive and punishing laws (mandatory minimum sentences, three-strikes laws)
• Closure of state-run mental hospitals in the 1960s-1970s
• Reduced funding for community-based treatment programs in the 1980s
• Result: Mentally ill people shifted from inadequate mental institutions to inadequate prisons

Don't confuse: This is first-order change (shifting people between inadequate settings) disguised as reform, not true second-order change that would address root causes.

🏠 Reentry challenges

600,000+ prison inmates are released annually in the US:

• Most prisons have meager rehabilitation programs
• Released inmates' greatest needs: safe housing and employment
• These resources are rarely provided
• Traditional weekly psychotherapy is insufficient for these complex needs
• Result: High rates of return to prison

🏘️ Oxford House case study

Scott's story (Case Study 1.2) illustrates the need for community-based solutions:

Background: Born to addicted mother; adopted by grandparents; became addicted to cocaine, meth, painkillers, then heroin; joined prison gang; served multiple prison sentences including 5 years in solitary confinement.

Turning point: After overdosing and being revived, Scott entered Oxford House—a community-based residential self-help organization.

Oxford House model:

• Started with one house in 1975; now serves over 20,000 people nationwide
• Houses are rented; residents completely self-govern without professional help
• Residents can live indefinitely if they remain abstinent, follow rules, and pay ~$100-120/week rent
• Self-supporting: residents use work income to pay all expenses
• Provides stable housing, new social connections, and opportunities for legal income

Outcome: Scott became Re-Entry Coordinator, helping others transition from prison.

Key insight: This grassroots innovation addresses social justice needs through stable housing, peer support, and employment opportunities—environmental changes that enable lasting individual change.

🧠 Environmental enrichment evidence

Laboratory research supports the importance of environmental context:

• Rats raised in "enriched" environments show 7-10% brain weight increases compared to those in "impoverished" environments.
• Heavier and thicker cerebral cortexes result from environmental enrichment.
• Context has lasting, shaping influence on behavior and even brain structure.

Implication: We must attend to environments of those living in poverty and exposed to high crime, as these factors are associated with multiple negative outcomes including higher rates of chronic health conditions.

🌳 The Ecological Model

🌳 Shift from individualistic perspective

Ecological perspective: An approach that considers multiple levels or layers of issues—individual, family, neighborhood, community, and national policies—recognizing that individuals, communities, and societies are interconnected.

What makes it different: Context or environment is considered integral to understanding and working with communities and individuals, rather than focusing solely on the individual.

🔍 Opioid crisis example

Jane's story illustrates ecological levels:

Individual level: Jane was in an auto accident, experienced severe pain, became addicted to painkillers, then heroin; became involved in buying/selling illegal substances; became estranged from family; was caught and sentenced to prison.

Beyond the individual:

Ecological Level	Contributing Factors
Healthcare organizations	Physicians overprescribed pain medications for profit
Pharmaceutical industry	Reaped huge profits by oversupplying drugs to pharmacies
Community/Criminal justice	Delivered punishment in crowded, unsafe prisons instead of substance use treatment
Societal/Policy	Federal regulators allowed opiate drugs for long-term use; legislators passed laws extending sentences for substance-related offenses

Key insight: Complex social problems are produced and maintained by multiple ecological influences; corrective second-order community solutions must address these contextual issues.

🔗 Kelly's ecological principles

James Kelly (2006) proposed principles for understanding how social environments affect people:

🔗 Interdependence

Interdependence principle: Everything is connected, so changing one aspect of a setting or environment will have many ripple effects.

Example: Providing those released from prison a safe place to live with gainfully employed others (Oxford Houses):

• Ripple effect: Living among others in recovery provides gentle but powerful influence
• Residents spend more time in work settings to pay rent
• Less time in environments with high levels of illegal activities
• New interpersonal skills develop that are adaptive in recovery settings

🦎 Adaptation

Adaptation principle: Behavior adaptive in one setting may not be adaptive in other settings.

Example: A person highly skilled at selling drugs and stealing will find these behaviors are not adaptive or successful in a sober living house, requiring them to learn new interpersonal skills adaptive in the recovery setting.

🏚️ Homelessness through ecological lens

Over half a million people in the US experience homelessness:

Individual level: Many suffer from substance abuse and mental health problems; cycle in and out of criminal justice system.

Ecological perspective: Focuses attention on lack of affordable housing for low-income people; calls for higher-order interventions beyond the individual.

🏡 Housing First innovation

Founded by clinical-community psychologist Sam Tsemberis:

Core principle: Provide housing first, then treatment services.

Rationale: By providing housing first, many positive ripple effects lead to beneficial changes in formerly homeless person's behaviors and functioning.

Russell's story (Case Study 1.3):

• Grew up in Southeast DC; became homeless over 30 years ago
• Struggled with schizophrenia; in and out of jail and hospital
• Spent last 10 years sleeping on a park bench downtown
• With Pathways team help, moved into permanent apartment
• After two months, began thriving: saved to buy a bike, watched Redskins games in his living room
• Experienced improved sense of hope, connection with others, and quality of life

Evidence: Housing First is successful in helping vulnerable individuals gain resources to overcome homelessness; included in Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs.

🛡️ Prevention example

Ecological perspective applied to gang prevention:

• Provided youth anti-gang classroom sessions
• Offered after-school activities (organized sports clinics encouraging cooperation, opportunities to travel outside neighborhood)
• Multi-scale approach addresses individual skills and environmental opportunities

🌟 Other Key Principles

🌈 Respect for Diversity

Respect for diversity: Appreciating the views and norms of groups from different ethnic or racial backgrounds, as well as those of different genders, sexual orientations, and levels of abilities or disabilities.

What Community Psychology counters:

• Racism: White persons have access to resources and opportunities not available to ethnic minorities
• Sexism: Discrimination directed at women
• Heterosexism: Discrimination toward non-heterosexuals
• Ableism: Discrimination toward those with physical or mental disabilities

Important principle: Creating a more equitable society should not fall only on those who have directly experienced its inequalities.

Application: If preventive interventions are culturally-tailored to meet diverse needs of recipients, they are more likely to be appreciated, valued, and maintained over time.

🤝 Active Citizen Participation

Brazilian educator Freire (1970) wrote that change efforts begin by helping people identify issues they have strong feelings about.

Active citizen participation: Involving community groups and community members in egalitarian partnership and collaboration, enabling people to re-establish power and control over obstacles or barriers they confront.

Benefits:

• Community partners are recognized as experts
• Individuals build valuable skills when they help define issues, provide solutions, and have voice in decisions
• Shifts power dynamic so all parties collaborate in decision-making
• Community members provide unique points of view about institutional barriers

Example: Officer Talbot (from tobacco case study) became an activist for reducing youth access to tobacco after being involved as a community partner.

Community-based participatory research: Research where all partners are involved equally in the research process.

📊 Grounding in Research and Evaluation

Community psychologists base advocacy and social change on data generated from research:

Approach:

• Apply evaluation tools to conceptualize and understand complex ecological issues
• Evaluate whether policy and social change preventive interventions have been successful
• Bring community voice into evaluation efforts
• Conduct community-based action-oriented research

Methods employed:

• Qualitative research: In-depth exploration of experiences and meanings
• Quantitative research: Numerical data and statistical analysis
• Mixed methods research: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches

Important principle: No one method is superior; what's needed is a match between research methods and the nature of questions asked by community members and researchers.

Example: Durlak and Pachan (2012) investigated effects of hundreds of programs dedicated to preventing mental health problems in children and adolescents; findings showed positive outcomes in improved competence, adjustment, and reduced problems.

🔬 Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Social issues are complex and intertwined; addressing marginalized and oppressed populations requires expertise from many perspectives.

Oxford House evaluation team example:

• Sociologist: Studies social networks; found best predictor of positive long-term outcomes was having at least one friend in recovery houses
• Economist: Found economic benefits were greater and costs less for Oxford House than professional interventions
• Social worker: Contributed unique clinical perspective
• Public Health researcher: Provided population-level analysis
• Oxford House members: Offered lived experience expertise
• Students: Contributed valuable skills and perspectives

Tool: The "idea tree exercise" helps different disciplines work together to create new ideas and advance knowledge across fields.

🏘️ Sense of Community

Psychological sense of community: Our need for a supportive network of people on which we can depend, describing a sense of belonging, interdependence, and mutual commitment.

Core value: Promoting healthy sense of community is an overarching goal of Community Psychology.

Why it matters:

• Loss of connectedness lies at the root of many social problems
• If people feel they exist within a larger interdependent network, they are more willing to commit and make personal sacrifices for the group
• Essential for achieving second-order change

Example of unsuccessful intervention: An intervention that increased students' achievement test scores but fostered competition and rivalry that damaged their sense of community would be considered unsuccessful from a Community Psychology perspective.

Don't confuse: Sense of community is not just about feeling good—it's about the functional interdependence that enables collective action for change.

💪 Empowerment

Empowerment: The process by which people and communities who have historically not had control over their lives become masters of their own fate.

Characteristics of empowered people and communities:

• Greater autonomy and self-determination
• Gain more access to resources
• Participate in community decision-making
• Work toward changing oppressive community and societal conditions

Example: Russell (from Housing First case study) felt a lack of control while homeless; once provided stable housing and connections with others, he felt more empowered and able to gain needed resources to improve his quality of life.

📜 Policy

Community psychologists enter the policy arena by trying to influence laws and regulations at multiple levels:

• Local
• State
• National
• International

Example: Work on reducing minors' access to tobacco (Case Study 1.1) led to the federal Synar Amendment.

Contributions: Community psychologists collaborate with community-based organizations and serve as senior policy advisors.

Historical impact of policy-level interventions over the last century:

• Human lifespan has doubled
• Poverty has dropped by over 50%
• Child and infant mortality rates reduced by 90%

Future challenges requiring policy interventions:

• Escalating population growth (demands on water, energy, food resources)
• Growing inequalities between highest and lowest compensated workers (automation and AI eliminating jobs)
• Increasing temperatures from burning fossil fuels (higher sea levels, destructive hurricanes)
• Expanding needs of growing elderly population

Vision: Principles of Community Psychology successfully used at local and community levels might be employed to deal with global issues.

🌱 Promoting Wellness

Wellness: Not simply the lack of illness, but the combination of physical, psychological, and social health, including attainment of personal goals and well-being.

Community Psychology extension:

• Applies wellness concept to groups of people and communities
• Focuses on collective wellness—the well-being of entire communities, not just individuals

Distinction: This goes beyond individual health to consider the health and functioning of social systems and communities as a whole.

🎯 Summary and Vision

🎯 Key features reviewed

This chapter covered the defining characteristics of Community Psychology:

1. Emphasis on prevention: Stopping problems before they start through second-order change
2. Social justice orientation: Addressing structural inequalities and resource disparities
3. Ecological perspective: Understanding problems across multiple interconnected levels
4. Respect for diversity: Countering oppression in all its forms
5. Active citizen participation: Empowering communities to lead change
6. Research grounding: Basing interventions on evidence and evaluation
7. Interdisciplinary collaboration: Drawing on multiple fields' expertise
8. Sense of community: Building supportive, interdependent networks
9. Empowerment: Enabling people to gain control over their lives
10. Policy engagement: Influencing laws and regulations at all levels
11. Wellness promotion: Fostering collective health and well-being

🌍 The social justice vision

Community Psychology works toward:

• Fair and equitable allocation of resources and opportunities
• Meaningful changes in communities
• Greater access to resources and decision-making
• Support for communities that have been marginalized and oppressed
• Systemic and structural changes rather than just individual treatment

Core belief: By providing students with perspectives and tools learned in this textbook, they can become change agents for social justice and comprehensively analyze, investigate, and address escalating problems of economic inequality, violence, substance abuse, homelessness, poverty, and racism.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community Psychology emerged in 1965 during a turbulent era of social movements and deinstitutionalization, evolving over three decades from a clinical offshoot into a diverse, international field emphasizing prevention, empowerment, and ecological perspectives.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Birth context: The field was born at the 1965 Swampscott Conference amid Civil Rights, feminist movements, Vietnam protests, and mental health deinstitutionalization.
• Rapid growth (1965–1975): Training programs, early intervention settings (Primary Mental Health Project, Community Lodge), journals, and Division 27 were all established in the first decade.
• Identity struggles (1975–1985): The "heyday" saw peak membership, student-led conferences, separation from APA to form SCRA, and "dueling addresses" over whether to emphasize prevention, empowerment, or ecological perspectives.
• Common confusion: Community Psychology is not just an extension of Clinical Psychology—it draws from many sources and increasingly includes non-psychologists.
• Maturation (1985–1995): The field entered "middle age," reflecting on its legacy and expanding into schools, workplaces, religious organizations, and international contexts.

🌍 Historical context: the 1960s social landscape

🌍 Social and political turbulence

• The 1960s were marked by protests and demonstrations:
  • Civil Rights Movement: The Voting Rights Act was signed in 1965.
  • Feminist Movement gained momentum in the 1960s–1970s.
  • Gay and lesbian rights, environmental movements, and widespread Vietnam War protests also emerged.
• This socially-conscious atmosphere was ideal for a field whose values emphasized social justice.

🏥 Deinstitutionalization and mental health reform

• Widespread deinstitutionalization of mental patients occurred during this period.
• Media accounts portrayed horrendous conditions in mental hospitals.
• Key factors driving change:
  • Development of antipsychotic medications (e.g., Thorazine).
  • Research evidence on harmful effects of mental hospitalization (e.g., Goffman's Asylums).
• 1961: Joint Commission on Mental Health and Illness recommended reducing hospital size and training more professionals and paraprofessionals.
• 1963: President John F. Kennedy championed the Community Mental Health Centers Act, establishing community-based services nationwide.
• Many large state mental hospitals closed over the next 20 years.

🎯 The Swampscott Conference (1965)

The term "Community Psychology" was first used by attendees at what is now called the "Swampscott Conference" of 1965.

• A group of clinical psychologists gathered in Swampscott, MA.
• They hoped to become social change agents to address pressing social justice issues of the 1960s.
• This conference gave birth to the field of Community Psychology.

Don't confuse: The Community Mental Health Movement and Community Psychology are related but distinct—the former focused on service delivery reform, while the latter developed as an academic and professional field emphasizing broader social change.

📚 The first decade (1965–1975): foundations

📚 Training programs proliferate

• 1966: Ed Zolik established one of the first clinical-community doctoral programs at DePaul University.
• 1966: Ira Iscoe established a free-standing doctoral program at the University of Texas at Austin.
• By 1969: 50 programs offered training in Community Psychology and community mental health.
• By 1975: 141 graduate programs offered training in these areas.

🏗️ Early intervention settings

Two important "early settings" for community research and action developed:

🏗️ Primary Mental Health Project (University of Rochester)

• Founded by Emory Cowen in 1958 (formalized by 1975).
• What it did: Identified children in primary grades (K–3) showing initial trouble adjusting to school; provided help through the school year from paraprofessional child associates.
• Impact: Built for a single school in Rochester in 1958; used by 2,000 schools worldwide today.
• One of the first widely researched and publicized prevention programs developed by community psychologists.
• Cowen trained a large number of people who later became prominent in Community Psychology.

🏗️ Community Lodge project

• Initially developed by George Fairweather at a VA psychiatric hospital.
• What it did: Prepared groups of hospitalized mental patients in a shared housing environment for simultaneous release into the community; patients established a common business (e.g., lawn care service) and eventually took full control from professionals.
• Evaluation: First rigorous evaluation found patients randomly assigned to the Lodge spent less time in hospital than control group receiving traditional services (Fairweather et al., 1969).
• Fairweather later helped establish the doctoral program in Ecological Psychology at Michigan State University.

🏛️ Professional infrastructure established

• 1966: Division 27 (Community Psychology) of the American Psychological Association (APA) was established.
• 1966: James Kelly published an article on the ecological perspective in American Psychologist.
• 1973: Two major journals first published:
  • Journal of Community Psychology
  • American Journal of Community Psychology
• These journals became the two most influential professional journals in the field.

📖 Early publications

• First textbooks appeared during this decade (Bloom, 1975; Zax & Spector).
  • Both viewed Community Psychology as an outgrowth of Clinical Psychology.
  • Over time, the field would portray itself in a much broader context, deriving from many sources beyond Clinical Psychology.
• Other important publications:
  • Ryan's Blaming the Victim (still one of the most cited publications in the field).
  • Cowen's Annual Review of Psychology chapter on social and community interventions.
• Austin Conference (end of decade): Brought together key figures to examine the field's conceptual independence from Clinical Psychology.

🌟 The second decade (1975–1985): the "heyday"

🌟 Peak growth and relevance

• The late 1970s and early 1980s could be considered the "heyday" of Community Psychology.
• The political climate made Community Psychology both relevant and necessary.
• Membership peak: APA's Division 27 (Community Psychology) rose to over 1,800 members in 1983.

🎓 Student-led conferences emerge

• 1978: First Midwest Ecological Community Psychology Conference at Michigan State University.
• Provided informal opportunities for community psychologists and students to discuss new developments, training programs, and research.
• 1980 turning point: At Bowling Green State University, a graduate student suggested that because the conference was meant for students, students should plan and organize it.
• Students from University of Illinois Chicago began the long-standing tradition of student-run conferences.
• These conferences have led to networking opportunities, job placements, and professional relationships.

Example: Stephen Fawcett brought two graduate students (Yolanda Suarez-Balcazar and Fabricio Balcazar) to one meeting; they met Chris Keys, leading to both finding their first jobs in Chicago.

🔀 Separation from APA and formation of SCRA

Many community psychologists became dissatisfied with Division 27's association with APA:

• Desire to bring more non-psychologists into the field.
• Concerns that APA increasingly emphasized clinical practice issues over all others.
• Recognition that the term "psychology" no longer fit well with the work of many community psychologists.

Result: The organizational name changed to the Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA).

• 1987: First Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action occurred.
• The Biennial became the major national professional venue for Community Psychology.
• SCRA now has more non-APA members than APA members.

🎤 "Dueling addresses": competing emphases

A string of Presidential addresses tried to strongly encourage the field to adopt particular emphases:

Speaker	Emphasis	Key argument
Emory Cowen	Prevention	Prevention should become "front and center" in the field
Julian Rappaport	Empowerment	Argued for empowerment rather than prevention
Ed Trickett	Ecological perspective	Emphasized ecological analysis
James Kelly	Ecological perspective	Sought to understand behavior in context of individual, family, peer, and community influences

Don't confuse: These are not mutually exclusive—the field can embrace a "big tent" approach respecting all perspectives. Belief in respect for diversity applies to interactions among colleagues in Community Psychology.

📖 New textbooks and perspectives

• 1977: Two new textbooks published by Heller & Monahan and Rappaport.
• Rappaport's text: Presented a much more radical view emphasizing empowerment of the poor and disadvantaged, and a more active advocacy stance for community psychologists.

🌏 International expansion

• Late 1970s and early 1980s saw significant growth outside the US and Canada.
• First courses taught in Latin America (University of Puerto Rico).
• First courses taught in Australia.
• 1983: First professional organization of community psychologists outside North America occurred in Australia.
• Since then, some of the greatest growth in formal membership has occurred in Community Psychology organizations outside of North America.

🧑‍🎓 The third decade (1985–1995): entering "middle age"

🧑‍🎓 Reflecting on maturity

• 1987: James Kelly edited a special issue of American Journal of Community Psychology to commemorate the field's 20th anniversary.
• 12 articles included brief reminiscences and substantive pieces.

🧑‍🎓 Developmental analogy

Annette Rickel made an analogy to Erikson's developmental stages:

• Suggested Community Psychology had progressed through adolescence and was entering early adulthood.
• Extending this analogy: The field is now over 50 years old, well into "middle age."
• Consistent with Erikson's stages, the field may be concerned about its "long-term legacy."

🎤 Continued "dueling addresses"

Presidential addresses continued to emphasize different priorities:

• Annette Rickel (1986): Emphasized prevention (echoing Cowen from 10 years earlier).
• Beth Shinn (1992): Urged community psychologists to engage in new ways to cope with the social problem of homelessness.
• Irma Serrano-Garcia (University of Puerto Rico): Emphasized [excerpt ends here].

🌐 Expanding domains

Beth Shinn urged community psychologists to enter an even wider range of domains:

• Schools
• Work sites
• Religious organizations
• Voluntary associations
• Government

This reflected the field's maturation and broadening scope beyond traditional mental health settings.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community Psychology matured from adolescence into middle age over the past four decades, expanding internationally, refining participatory research methods, and increasingly adopting systems perspectives to address complex social problems.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• International expansion: From the late 1970s onward, Community Psychology grew rapidly outside North America, with formal organizations emerging in Australia (1983), Latin America, Europe (2005), and global conferences starting in 2006.
• Evolving themes across decades: Presidential addresses and conferences consistently emphasized prevention, empowerment of the disenfranchised, ecological levels of analysis, and participatory research with community partners.
• Methodological advances: The field moved toward mixing qualitative and quantitative methods, sophisticated statistical approaches, and systems perspectives that capture dynamic feedback loops rather than simple cause-and-effect.
• Demographic shift: Women authors increased from less than 12% in the early 1970s to 61% by 2008 in major Community Psychology journals, reflecting broader changes in psychology doctoral students (from ~20% women in 1970 to ~72% by 2005).
• Common confusion: The field is not just "clinical psychology in communities"—it emphasizes prevention, social change, and working collaboratively with community members to define and solve problems, rather than delivering traditional services.

🌍 International expansion and organizational growth

🌎 Growth beyond North America

• Late 1970s–early 1980s: first courses taught in Latin America (University of Puerto Rico) and Australia.
• 1983: Australia established the first professional Community Psychology organization outside North America.
• Since then, some of the greatest membership growth has occurred in organizations outside North America.

🇪🇺 European and global networks

• 2005: European Community Psychology Association formed (previously an informal "Network for Community Psychology").
• Annual European conferences held in different cities.
• 2006: first International Conference on Community Psychology in San Juan, Puerto Rico; subsequent conferences held in even-numbered years in Portugal, Chile, Mexico, and South Africa.
• This growth aligns with Community Psychology's core value of cultural diversity and supports "internationalization" of practice, research, training, and theory.

📅 Decade-by-decade themes and milestones

🕰️ Third decade (1985–1995): Entering early adulthood

• 1987: James Kelly edited a special issue of the American Journal of Community Psychology to mark the field's 20th anniversary.
  • Beth Shinn urged entry into wider domains: schools, work sites, religious organizations, voluntary associations, government.
  • Annette Rickel used Erikson's developmental stages as an analogy: the field had progressed through adolescence into early adulthood.
• Presidential addresses continued key themes:
  • Annette Rickel (1986): emphasized prevention (echoing Cowen's earlier address).
  • Beth Shinn (1992): urged new approaches to homelessness.
  • Irma Serrano-Garcia (1993): emphasized empowering the disenfranchised.
• 1987: new textbook published (Levine & Perkins).
• 1988: major conference in Chicago to better define theories and methods; discussed the role of theory, ecological levels of analysis, and implementing research collaboratively with community partners.

🏠 Fourth decade (1995–2005): Housing First and participatory research

• 1995: Sam Tsemberis developed "Housing First" in New York City, targeting persons who are both homeless and seriously mentally ill.
  • Reaction to poorly researched transitional housing models.
  • Combines up-front permanent housing with ongoing support services.
  • Randomized trials showed clients became stably housed quicker and remained housed longer than control groups.
  • Positive results also in Canadian five-city evaluation (Aubry et al., 2016).
  • Became popular in Europe and other developed nations; annual international conferences since.
• 2002: 2nd Chicago Conference on Community Research at Loyola University focused on refining theories and methodologies for participatory research.
  • Participatory research: active participation of community members in planning, implementation, and evaluation.
  • Essential for collaborating with community members to define and intervene with social problems.
• 2004: SCRA gained financial security by acquiring the American Journal of Community Psychology from Kluwer/Plenum.

🌐 Fifth decade to present (2005–present): Systems perspectives and accessibility

• 2005: special issue on history in Journal of Community Psychology (Fowler & Toro, 2008b) included:
  • Genealogical analysis of 10 key founders (Fowler & Toro, 2008a).
  • Account of "trailblazing" women (Ayala-Alcantar et al., 2008).
  • Documentation of Community Psychology development in different world regions.
• Pokorny et al. (2009) gauged "influence" via publications and citations in major journals.
  • Many publications by males from academic institutions, but also influential women like Barbara Dohrenwend (groundbreaking psychosocial stress model research; original founder).
  • Number of women publishing increased over time (see Case Study 2.2).
• The field increasingly adopted a systems perspective: mutual interdependencies and dynamic feedback loops, transcending simplistic linear cause-and-effect.
  • New quantitative and qualitative methods support contextually and theoretically grounded interventions.
  • More attention to mixing methods for deeper exploration of contextual factors.
  • Sophisticated statistical methods help describe dynamics of complex systems.
• Efforts to lower barriers: free online textbook, free SCRA Student Associate membership for undergraduates—examples of "giving psychology away" consistent with prevention, social change, social justice, and empowerment values.

👩‍🔬 Changing demographics: Women in Community Psychology

📈 Publications by women over time

Case Study 2.2: In 1970, women comprised ~20% of psychology Ph.D. recipients; by 2005, nearly 72% of new doctoral students were women.

• Early 1970s: women represented less than 12% of publishing authors in the two major Community Psychology journals.
• By 2008: women comprised 61% of authors in those journals.
• This shift illustrates how marginalized groups transitioned to greater prominence and reflects the evolving role of women in the field.

🌟 Influential women

• Barbara Dohrenwend: contributed groundbreaking psychosocial stress model research; one of the original founders.
• The special issue on history (2005) included an article on "trailblazing" women in Community Psychology.

🔬 Methodological and theoretical evolution

🔄 From linear to systems thinking

• The field moved away from simplistic linear cause-and-effect methods.
• Systems perspective: captures mutual interdependencies and dynamic feedback loops—how people adapt to and become effective in diverse social environments (consistent with Kelly's ecological model).
• Example: rather than "intervention A causes outcome B," Community Psychology now examines how interventions interact with context, feedback, and multiple levels of influence.

🧪 Mixing methods and sophisticated analysis

• More attention to mixing qualitative and quantitative research methods for deeper exploration of contextual factors.
• Sophisticated statistical methods help address questions about complex systems that can transform communities.
• These methods support contextually and theoretically grounded community interventions (Jason & Glenwick, 2016).

🤝 Participatory research refinement

• Characterized by active participation of community members in planning, implementation, and evaluation.
• Essential for collaborating with community members to define and intervene with social problems they face.
• The 2002 Chicago Conference focused specifically on refining participatory research theories and methodologies.
• Don't confuse: participatory research is not "research on communities" but "research with communities"—community members are partners, not subjects.

🎯 Applied contributions and real-world impact

🏘️ Housing First as a model intervention

• Developed by Sam Tsemberis (1999), a community psychologist in New York City.
• Targets persons who are both homeless and seriously mentally ill.
• Key features:
  • Up-front permanent housing (not transitional).
  • Ongoing support services.
• Evidence:
  • Randomized trials: clients became stably housed significantly quicker and remained housed significantly longer than control groups.
  • Positive results in Canadian five-city evaluation.
  • Became popular in Europe and other developed nations.
  • Annual international conferences for the past three years (as of 2018).
• Example of how Community Psychology principles (prevention, social change, empowerment) translate into effective interventions.

📚 Giving psychology away

• The free online textbook and free SCRA Student Associate membership for undergraduates are examples of putting principles into practice.
• Consistent with the field's commitment to prevention, social change, social justice, and empowerment.
• Lowers barriers to participation in Community Psychology.

🧩 Maturity and identity of the field

🌱 Developmental analogy

• Annette Rickel (1987) used Erikson's developmental stages: the field had progressed through adolescence into early adulthood.
• Extending the analogy: the field is now over 50 years old, well into "middle age."
• Consistent with Erikson's middle-age issues, the field may be concerned about its "long-term legacy."

🎓 Establishing stability

• The field appears "well-established and mature" after some "growing pains."
• 2004: SCRA gained solid financial security for perhaps the first time by acquiring the American Journal of Community Psychology.
• International conferences, textbooks, and professional organizations signal a stable, recognized discipline.

🔑 Core focus remains consistent

• Focus on prevention, ecology, and social justice has persisted across decades.
• The field offers society new ways of thinking about solving social and community problems.
• Presidential addresses and conferences consistently returned to themes of prevention, empowerment, participatory approaches, and ecological analysis.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The excerpt provided contains only a table of contents and introductory front matter for a community psychology textbook, without substantive content on international perspectives.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The excerpt shows the structure of a community psychology textbook but does not contain the actual Chapter 4 content.
• The table of contents lists 19 chapters covering theory, research, practice, community understanding, interventions, and tools for action.
• The "About the Book" section describes community psychology's focus on social problems, resource distribution, prevention, and power dynamics.
• The preface frames the textbook as a free resource for learning how to address social justice issues.
• Common confusion: This excerpt is front matter, not the chapter itself—no international perspectives content is present.

📚 What the excerpt contains

📑 Table of contents structure

The excerpt shows a textbook organized into six parts:

• Part I: Introduction
• Part II: Theory, Research, and Practice (chapters 5–7)
• Part III: Understanding Communities (chapters 8–10)
• Part IV: Intervention and Prevention Strategies (chapters 11–13)
• Part V: Tools for Action (chapters 14–16)
• Part VI: Our Future (chapters 17–19)

Chapter 4 is listed under Part I with the title "International Perspectives" and authors Ronald Harvey and Hana Masud, but the actual chapter content is not included.

📖 Textbook framing

The "About the Book" and "Preface" sections describe the field's orientation:

• Community psychologists view social problems as stemming from unequal resource distribution.
• The field emphasizes prevention rather than only treating existing problems.
• Community members are positioned as equal team members with unique perspectives.
• The approach combines research and action skills to evaluate intervention effectiveness.

⚠️ Content limitation

⚠️ Missing chapter content

The excerpt does not contain the actual text of Chapter 4: International Perspectives. To write meaningful review notes on international perspectives in community psychology, the chapter's substantive content would be needed.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists work across diverse settings—from academia to non-profits—applying core values like prevention, social justice, and empowerment to improve community well-being through collaborative planning, action, and research.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core mission: Community psychologists seek to improve community well-being through a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.
• Systems lens approach: The field emphasizes exploring issues with a systems perspective, focusing on prevention and community contexts of behavior.
• Eleven core values: Prevention, social justice, ecological perspective, respect for diversity, active citizen participation, grounding in research and evaluation, interdisciplinary collaboration, sense of community, empowerment, policy, and promoting wellness.
• Diverse roles and settings: Community psychologists work as researchers, policy developers, educators, program evaluators, or program coordinators within academic, government, and non-profit settings.
• Common confusion: Graduate work in the field is typical but not required to engage in community work—the work depends on an individual's interest, training, and experience.

🎯 Mission and approach

🎯 What community psychologists do

Community psychologists seek to improve community well-being through a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.

• The work is collaborative, not top-down—community members are partners, not subjects.
• The process is cyclical: planning → action → research → back to planning.
• Example: An organization identifies a community need, plans interventions with residents, implements them, evaluates outcomes, and refines the approach based on findings.

🔍 Systems lens and prevention focus

• Community psychologists explore issues with a systems lens approach.
• They focus on prevention rather than only treatment.
• They emphasize community contexts of behavior—understanding how environments shape actions.
• Don't confuse: This is not individual-level psychology; it looks at how systems and contexts influence people.

💎 Core values of the field

💎 The eleven values

The excerpt lists eleven core values that community psychologists embrace:

Value	What it emphasizes
1. Prevention	Stopping problems before they occur
2. Social justice	Fairness and equity in communities
3. Ecological perspective	Understanding multiple levels of influence
4. Respect for diversity	Valuing different backgrounds and identities
5. Active citizen participation	Engaging community members as partners
6. Grounding in research and evaluation	Using evidence to guide action
7. Interdisciplinary collaboration	Working across fields
8. Sense of community	Building connection and belonging
9. Empowerment	Strengthening people's capacity to act
10. Policy	Influencing systems and structures
11. Promoting wellness	Supporting health and thriving

🌱 Why these values matter

• These values guide how community psychologists work, not just what they work on.
• They reflect a commitment to equity, collaboration, and systemic change.
• Example: A program evaluator doesn't just measure outcomes; they ensure diverse community voices shape what gets measured and how.

🏢 Settings and roles

🏢 Where community psychologists work

• Settings range from academia to non-profit organizations.
• Also includes government settings.
• The excerpt notes these are not the only settings—the field is diverse.

👥 What roles they take

Community psychologists can work as:

• Researchers: Conducting studies to understand community issues.
• Policy developers: Shaping laws and regulations.
• Educators: Teaching and training others.
• Program evaluators: Assessing whether interventions work.
• Program coordinators: Managing community initiatives.

🎓 Training and pathways

• Typical path: Graduate work in the field.
• Not required: Graduate training is not necessary to engage in community work.
• What matters: An individual's interest, training, and experience determine their work.
• Don't confuse: "Community psychologist" as a formal credential vs. doing community psychology work—the latter is accessible to people with varied backgrounds.

❤️ Passion and focus

• All community psychologists have a passion for specific community needs or topics.
• The excerpt asks: "What community issues are you most excited about addressing?"
• This suggests the field is driven by personal commitment to particular causes, not a one-size-fits-all approach.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists work across diverse settings—from academia to non-profits—using collaborative planning, action, and research to improve community well-being through prevention, social justice, and systems-level approaches.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core approach: community psychologists use a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.
• Eleven core values: prevention, social justice, ecological perspective, respect for diversity, active citizen participation, grounding in research and evaluation, interdisciplinary collaboration, sense of community, empowerment, policy, and promoting wellness.
• Diverse settings and roles: work ranges from academia to non-profit organizations, with roles including researchers, policy developers, educators, program evaluators, and program coordinators.
• Training flexibility: graduate work in the field is typical but not required to engage in community work; the work depends on individual interest, training, and experience.
• Common confusion: community psychology is not limited to one setting or role—the same field encompasses research, policy, education, and program work across multiple sectors.

🏢 Where Community Psychologists Work

🏢 Range of settings

The excerpt emphasizes that settings range widely:

• Academia: university and research institutions
• Non-profit organizations: community-based agencies and advocacy groups
• Government: policy and program development roles

These are not exhaustive; the excerpt notes "these are not the only roles and settings."

🎓 Training pathways

• Graduate work in community psychology is typical but not required.
• The work depends on three factors: individual interest, training, and experience.
• This flexibility means people can enter community work from different educational backgrounds.

Example: Someone with a passion for community issues can engage in community work even without formal graduate training in community psychology.

🎯 What Community Psychologists Do

🎯 The collaborative cycle

Community psychologists seek to improve community well-being through a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.

• The process is cyclical, not linear: planning → action → research → back to planning.
• Partnership with local community members is central—not working on communities but with them.
• This approach reflects the core value of active citizen participation.

🔍 Systems lens approach

The excerpt references the first chapter's emphasis on:

• Exploring issues with a systems lens approach
• Focusing on prevention
• Examining community contexts of behavior

Don't confuse: this is not individual-level intervention; it's about understanding and changing systems and contexts.

🧰 Roles and Competencies

🧰 Five key roles

According to the excerpt, community psychologists can work as:

Role	Setting examples
Researchers	Academic, government, non-profit
Policy developers	Government, advocacy organizations
Educators	Academic, community training programs
Program evaluators	Non-profit, government agencies
Program coordinators	Non-profit, community organizations

🛠️ Unique skill sets

The excerpt mentions "unique skill sets or competencies" used in various settings but does not detail them in this section. It notes that competencies are tied to the eleven core values and the collaborative, systems-focused approach.

💡 Core Values Framework

💡 The eleven core values

The excerpt lists eleven values that community psychologists embrace:

1. Prevention: addressing issues before they become crises
2. Social justice: working toward equity and fairness
3. Ecological perspective: understanding multiple levels of influence
4. Respect for diversity: valuing different identities and experiences
5. Active citizen participation: involving community members in decisions
6. Grounding in research and evaluation: using evidence to guide action
7. Interdisciplinary collaboration: working across fields
8. Sense of community: building connection and belonging
9. Empowerment: strengthening capacity and agency
10. Policy: influencing systems through policy change
11. Promoting wellness: focusing on health and thriving, not just problem reduction

💡 How values shape work

• These values are not abstract principles; they guide the choice of methods, settings, and partnerships.
• The emphasis on prevention and wellness distinguishes community psychology from deficit-focused approaches.
• The ecological perspective connects to the systems lens mentioned earlier.

Example: A community psychologist working on housing might use an ecological perspective (value 3) to examine how policy (value 10), community participation (value 5), and social justice (value 2) intersect to create or solve homelessness.

🚀 Getting Started in the Field

🚀 Passion-driven work

The excerpt closes with a question: "What community issues are you most excited about addressing?"

• Community psychologists have a passion for specific community needs or topics.
• The field is broad enough to accommodate diverse interests—from health to education to housing to justice.
• Work is dependent on individual interest, not just formal training.

🚀 Employment strategies

The excerpt mentions that the chapter will "explore strategies for obtaining employment in the field of Community Psychology," but does not provide those strategies in this section.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists work across diverse settings—from academia to nonprofits—applying core values like prevention, social justice, and empowerment to improve community well-being through collaborative planning, action, and research.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core mission: Community psychologists seek to improve community well-being through a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.
• Eleven core values: prevention, social justice, ecological perspective, respect for diversity, active citizen participation, grounding in research and evaluation, interdisciplinary collaboration, sense of community, empowerment, policy, and promoting wellness.
• Diverse settings and roles: work ranges from academia to nonprofits and government; roles include researchers, policy developers, educators, program evaluators, and program coordinators.
• Common confusion: graduate training in community psychology is typical but not required to engage in community work; the work depends on individual interest, training, and experience.

🎯 Defining the field

🎯 What community psychologists do

Community psychologists seek to improve community well-being through a cycle of collaborative planning, action, and research in partnership with local community members.

• The work is collaborative: it is done with community members, not to them.
• The process is cyclical: planning → action → research → back to planning.
• Example: An organization partners with residents to identify a problem, implement a solution, evaluate the results, and refine the approach.

🔍 Systems lens and prevention focus

• Community psychologists explore issues with a systems lens approach.
• They focus on prevention and the community contexts of behavior.
• This means looking beyond individual factors to understand how environments, policies, and social structures shape outcomes.
• Don't confuse: the focus is not just on treating problems after they occur, but on preventing them by changing systems and contexts.

💡 Core values of the field

💡 The eleven values

The excerpt lists eleven core values that community psychologists embrace:

Value	What it emphasizes
1. Prevention	Stopping problems before they occur
2. Social justice	Fairness and equity in communities
3. Ecological perspective	Understanding behavior in context
4. Respect for diversity	Valuing different backgrounds and identities
5. Active citizen participation	Involving community members in decisions
6. Grounding in research and evaluation	Using evidence to guide action
7. Interdisciplinary collaboration	Working across fields and disciplines
8. Sense of community	Building connection and belonging
9. Empowerment	Strengthening people's capacity to act
10. Policy	Influencing rules and structures
11. Promoting wellness	Fostering health and well-being

🌱 Why these values matter

• These values guide the work community psychologists do in every setting.
• They reflect a commitment to systemic change, equity, and collaboration.
• Example: A program evaluator might use research and evaluation (value 6) to assess whether a policy (value 10) promotes social justice (value 2) and empowerment (value 9).

🏢 Settings and roles

🏢 Where community psychologists work

• Settings range from academia to nonprofits.
• The excerpt also mentions government settings.
• Example: A community psychologist might teach at a university, conduct research for a government agency, or coordinate programs at a nonprofit organization.

🛠️ What roles they take on

Community psychologists can work as:

• Researchers: conducting studies to understand community issues.
• Policy developers: shaping rules and regulations.
• Educators: teaching students or training community members.
• Program evaluators: assessing whether interventions work.
• Program coordinators: managing community initiatives.

🎓 Training and pathways

• Typically, community psychologists complete graduate work in the field.
• However, graduate training is not required to engage in community work.
• The work of a community psychologist depends on an individual's interest, training, and experience.
• Don't confuse: having a degree in community psychology is common but not the only path; passion and relevant skills also matter.

🔥 Passion and focus

• All community psychologists have a passion for specific community needs or topics.
• The excerpt asks: "What community issues are you most excited about addressing?"
• This suggests that personal interest drives the choice of focus area and career path.
• Example: One psychologist might focus on housing and homelessness, while another addresses youth development or environmental justice.

📚 Chapter context

📚 Learning objectives

The chapter aims to help readers:

• Distinguish between various settings where community psychologists often work.
• Describe diverse career roles within the field.
• Explore strategies for obtaining employment in the field.
• Understand unique skill sets or competencies used by community psychologists in various settings.

📚 Connection to earlier material

• The excerpt references the first chapter (Jason, Glantsman, O'Brien, & Ramian, 2019), which introduced the systems lens approach, prevention focus, and community contexts of behavior.
• This chapter builds on that foundation by showing how those principles translate into real-world careers and settings.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists must adopt cultural humility—an ongoing process of learning about diverse cultures while recognizing power dynamics and one's own limitations—to effectively work within diverse communities and combat systems of oppression.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Cultural humility vs. competence: Cultural humility emphasizes lifelong learning and "not knowing" rather than claiming mastery; it acknowledges power dynamics and requires continuous self-reflection.
• Dimensions of diversity: Include culture, race, ethnicity, gender, age, social class, sexual orientation, ability/disability, and religion/spirituality—each socially constructed and interacting with others.
• Intersectionality matters: Dimensions of diversity overlap and interact to create unique experiences of privilege or oppression; no single dimension exists independently.
• Common confusion: Race vs. ethnicity—race is socially constructed based on physical features (no biological basis), while ethnicity refers to cultural origin, ancestry, and shared customs.
• Application to practice: Culturally-situated programs must consider both surface structure (observable elements) and deep structure (historical, social, psychological aspects) of culture.

🌍 Cultural Humility Framework

🔄 What cultural humility means

Cultural humility: the ability to remain open to learning about other cultures while acknowledging one's own lack of competence and recognizing power dynamics that impact the relationship.

• Contrasts with traditional "cultural competence," which assumes one can master knowledge of a culture
• The competence model is problematic because it implies an endpoint—that expertise can be fully achieved
• Cultural humility recognizes learning as an ongoing, never-complete process

🪞 Core practices

• Continuous self-reflection: examining one's own worldview and biases
• Recognizing power dynamics: understanding how power imbalances affect individuals and communities
• Embracing "not knowing": maintaining curiosity rather than claiming expertise
• Lifelong commitment: treating cultural learning as a permanent journey

Example: A community psychologist working with a new immigrant community would not claim to "know" that culture after reading books; instead, they would build relationships with community members, ask questions, acknowledge gaps in understanding, and recognize their position of power as a professional.

⚠️ Don't confuse with...

Cultural competence (traditional model) assumes mastery is attainable and focuses on gaining knowledge and skills. Cultural humility assumes mastery is impossible and focuses on the learning process, power awareness, and relationship-building.

🧩 Major Dimensions of Diversity

🎭 Culture

Culture: shared meanings, beliefs, values, practices, and experiences passed down over time through family socialization, formal schooling, shared language, social roles, and norms.

• A dynamic concept that changes both individuals and societies together
• Extends beyond ethnic groups to include religious groups, sexual minority groups, socioeconomic groups, nation-states, and corporations
• Must be examined at multiple ecological levels (individual, family, organization, community, society)
• Should be understood within broader power relationships

🧬 Race

Race: socially constructed categories based on observable physical features (skin color, hair texture, facial features); has no biological foundation.

• Key insight: Most genetic variation exists within racial groups rather than between them
• Human racial groups are more alike than different
• Racial differences in outcomes (academics, health) stem from economic, historical, and social factors—not biology
• Definitions and meanings of race change over time, often driven by policies and laws (e.g., "one drop rule")
• In the US, people of color experience more racial prejudice and discrimination than white people

Don't confuse: Race (socially constructed, no biological basis) with biological or genetic categories. Scientists across disciplines have proven race has no biological foundation.

🌏 Ethnicity

Ethnicity: social identity based on culture of origin, ancestry, or affiliation with a cultural group; defined by subjective culture such as customs, language, and social ties.

• Different from nationality (legal status of belonging to a nation)
• Example: A person can be of Japanese ethnicity but British nationality if born in the UK
• Broad categories (e.g., "Latina/o/x," "Asian American") contain many distinct ethnicities
• Asian Americans have roots from over 20 countries; six largest subgroups are Chinese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, Koreans, and Japanese

⚧️ Gender

Gender: socially constructed perceptions of what it means to be male or female in society and how those genders are reflected and interpreted.

• Different from sex (biological descriptor involving chromosomes and reproductive organs)
• Gender norms influence job expectations, household responsibilities, and institutional organization
• Binary categories (male/female) have received most attention historically
• Recent years show increasing attention to other gender identities: gender-neutral, transgender, nonbinary, GenderQueer
• Gender affects distribution of power, resources, and access to opportunities

Example: Gender norms might dictate that certain jobs are "appropriate" for women or men, or that household responsibilities should be divided in specific ways—these are social constructions, not biological necessities.

⏳ Age

• Developmental changes and transitions across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
• Power dynamics, relationships, health concerns, community participation, and life satisfaction vary by age group
• Older adults have been neglected in Community Psychology research despite the field's potential to make a difference

💰 Social Class

Social class: socially constructed category that can include income/material wealth, educational status, and/or occupational status.

• Indicates differences in power, privilege, economic opportunities, resources, and social capital
• Shapes worldview and understanding of the world
• Influences access to schools, health care, jobs, and overall well-being
• Differences in norms, values, and practices between classes impact health outcomes

🏳️‍🌈 Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation: a person's emotional, romantic, erotic, and spiritual attractions toward another in relation to their own sex or gender.

• Focuses on feelings rather than behaviors
• Exists on a continuum or multiple continuums
• Crosses all other dimensions of diversity (race, ethnicity, class, ability, religion)
• Different from gender identity or gender expression
• Identities include gay, lesbian, asexual, bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, and fluid
• Sexual minority groups face marginalization, oppression, and inadequate representation in research

♿ Ability/Disability

Disabilities: visible or hidden, temporary or permanent conditions that provide barriers or challenges; impact individuals of every age and social group.

• Medical model (traditional): explains diagnoses and treatment from a pathological perspective; treats individuals as objects of study
• Social model (Community Psychology): views diagnoses from social and environmental perspective; considers multiple ecological levels; strongly values individual experiences
• Culture impacts whether behaviors are considered "typical" and affects diagnosis rates
• Students of color and underserved groups have higher rates of learning disabilities, emotional/behavioral disabilities, and intellectual disabilities—likely due to economic, historical, and social factors

Don't confuse: The medical model (pathology-focused, individual-level) with the social model (environment-focused, considers context and power).

Case example: The chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) prevalence study initially used flawed methods (asking healthcare providers to refer patients), leading to underestimation (only 20,000 cases) and stigmatization as "Yuppie Flu disease" affecting mainly white, middle-class women. When community psychologists used better methods (random community sampling), they found about one million cases, predominantly in lower socioeconomic status groups and communities of color—the opposite of the stereotype.

🕊️ Religion & Spirituality

Religion: shared systems of beliefs and values, symbols, feelings, actions, experiences, and a source of community unity; emphasizes beliefs, practices, relationships with the divine, and faith.

Spirituality: focuses on relationships with a higher power and a quest for meaning.

• Religion and spirituality were formerly considered one concept but have been differentiated
• Many individuals now consider themselves more spiritual than religious
• Both are important predictors of well-being, satisfaction, and life outcomes
• Religious and spiritual settings are natural settings where community psychologists can work
• Collaboration with religious organizations can help reach community goals

🔗 Intersectionality and Identity

🌐 What intersectionality means

Intersectionality: the interaction and overlap of various dimensions of diversity, giving rise to different experiences and multiple privileges or inequities.

• Dimensions do not exist independently of each other
• The combination creates unique experiences
• Example: Racial/ethnic and sexual minority men experience more health disparities than white and/or heterosexual men
• Community Psychology recognizes intersectionality's significance but published research still lags behind other disciplines

🎯 Privilege and oppression

Privilege: unearned advantages that individuals have based on membership in a dominant group (e.g., race, gender, social class, sexual orientation, ability).

• Contributes to systems of oppression for non-privileged individuals and groups
• Individuals can have multiple privileges
• White privilege: advantages white people have in society; important for psychologists to examine to understand how white people participate in systems of oppression
• White experiences and perspectives tend to dominate curriculum, policy, pedagogy, and practices

📚 White racial identity model

Janet Helms' model describes how white people move from a racist identity to a non-racist identity through:

• Becoming more aware of racial dynamics
• Moving beyond intellectual understanding to experiential understanding
• Understanding their role in a racist society

🛠️ Applying Diversity in Practice

🤝 Practice considerations

• Examine your own worldview before working in communities
• Recognize and articulate culture and power dynamics
• Form relationships with community members who can serve as guides
• Value multiple contexts: historical context, intersectionality, experiences of prejudice and discrimination
• Community psychologists must integrate elements of cultural humility in all practice settings

🔬 Research considerations

• Develop questions with communities: topics must be important to the populations being impacted
• Use participatory action research: valuable for developing topics inclusively and finding solutions in the social environment
• Consider power dynamics: between researcher and community, and within the community
• Use culturally-anchored methodologies: explore questions in appropriate context
• Avoid problematic comparisons: marginalized groups are often compared to majority groups without acknowledging power dynamics
• Acknowledge researcher positionality: cultural assumptions, experiences, and positions of power
• Disseminate widely: consider where findings will reach broad audiences

Don't confuse: Research on communities (extractive, researcher-driven) with research with communities (participatory, community-driven).

🏗️ Designing Culturally-Situated Programs

🌊 The water-boiling case study

A cautionary example from a Peruvian town where a three-year public health intervention failed:

• Goal: Persuade women to boil water to decrease health risks
• Assumption: Increased knowledge about health benefits would lead to behavior change
• Why it failed:
  • Cultural meanings of "hot" and "cold" water differed from Western assumptions
  • Boiled water was culturally linked to illness and disliked
  • Women's daily routines made boiling impractical
  • Social ostracization occurred for those who boiled water
  • Town's gendered leadership showed no interest in women's lives

Lesson: Well-intentioned, scientifically-based interventions can fail without deep cultural understanding.

🏛️ Two-structure approach

Structure	What it includes	Example
Surface structure	Observable aspects: staff demographics, setting, language(s), cultural components (music, food)	Hiring staff who match participants' race/ethnicity; using community language
Deep structure	Historical, social, psychological aspects: core cultural values, beliefs, practices	Understanding historical trauma, social hierarchies, psychological meanings of health practices

Important caveat: Attending to both structures does not guarantee success. Matching staff race/ethnicity alone is insufficient to establish trust or resolve all cultural differences. Programs using deep structures may appeal differently to those with different acculturation statuses.

📋 Trickett's recommendations

• Focus on communities more than programs
• Recognize choice is more important than change
• Work with local experts in the community
• Use research designs and methods appropriate for diverse cultures and populations

🎯 Key Takeaways

✅ Core principles

1. Cultural humility is an ongoing process, not a destination
2. All dimensions of diversity are socially constructed and interact through intersectionality
3. Power dynamics must be recognized and addressed in all work
4. Community members' lived experiences and perspectives are essential knowledge
5. Participatory approaches empower communities and challenge oppression

🚫 Common pitfalls to avoid

• Claiming cultural competence or mastery
• Treating dimensions of diversity as independent categories
• Ignoring power dynamics between researchers/practitioners and communities
• Designing programs without deep cultural understanding
• Comparing marginalized groups to majority groups without acknowledging power
• Focusing only on surface-level cultural elements

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Oppression and power are interconnected forces that shape communities through historical and systemic inequalities, and community psychologists work to dismantle these structures through liberation, decoloniality, and empowerment strategies across individual, organizational, community, and societal levels.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Oppression and power are two sides of the same coin: where harmful power exists, oppression follows, rooted in colonialism and maintained through physical and psychological control.
• Power takes multiple forms: power over (domination), power to (capacity to act), and power from (resistance to coercion).
• Language and knowledge are instruments of power: control over language, information, and narratives maintains systems of domination and shapes consciousness.
• Common confusion—empowerment vs. self-efficacy: true empowerment requires both internal belief and actual environmental change, not just psychological shifts alone.
• Dismantling requires multi-level action: effective strategies include liberation, decoloniality, intersectionality, consciousness-raising, and systems-level interventions.

🔗 The Oppression-Power Relationship

🪙 Two sides of the same coin

Power and oppression are mirror reflections of one another—where you see power that causes harm, you will likely see oppression.

• Oppression emerges as a result of power, with roots in global colonialism and conquests.
• Oppression denies groups living wages, equal education, affordable housing, and other resources.
• Groups without "power over" are classified as disenfranchised—exploited, victimized, subjected to restrictions, and seen as expendable.
• Agents of oppression often deny injustice occurs and blame oppressive conditions on the behaviors of the oppressed group.
• Example: A community faces substandard housing and inadequate school funding; those in power may claim the community's poverty is due to individual failings rather than systemic barriers.

🔄 How oppression becomes systemic

• Oppression becomes a system through adopted and perpetuated patterns.
• Socialization patterns maintain oppression: members learn through formal and informal education what their role and place are in society.
• Physical coercion may not last, but psychological ramifications can be perpetual without intervention.
• Knowledge is socially constructed, making it crucial to examine dominant narratives and their cultural meanings.

🎯 The role of community psychologists

It is our role as community psychologists to be a witness, to advocate, and to raise the voice and consciousness of those who lack power and/or the capacity to do so themselves. It is also our role to raise the consciousness of those who oppress and disempower.

🔍 Forms and Dimensions of Power

💪 Three types of power

Type	Definition	Example
Power over	Ability to compel or dominate others, control resources, enforce commands	An employer controlling wages and working conditions
Power to	Ability to pursue personal/collective goals and develop capacities	A community organizing to create their own services
Power from	Ability to resist coercion and unwanted demands	Workers refusing unfair labor practices

🧠 Power/knowledge connection

Control over language and information is referred to as power/knowledge—power is inherently tied to control over and access to information and vice versa.

• Knowledge is always related to systems of power.
• Systems of domination work not only through physical force but through language.
• Cultural racism deems a group's culture as inferior, including its language.
• A group's social and political power typically coincides with the status of their language within society.

🗣️ Language as an instrument of power

• Translation works both as a language tool and as an instrument of power.
• James Baldwin (1979): language is a political instrument that communicates a person's status within society.
• Example: The language barrier that prevented Africans from communicating with one another limited their collective power.
• Baldwin: "A language comes into existence by means of brutal necessity, and the rules of the language are dictated by what the language must convey."

🌍 Colonialism as expansive power

• During the 19th century, as much as 90% of the world was controlled/colonized by western nations.
• Suppression and domination were justified using the construct of race and false theories portraying non-white populations as infantile, incompetent, primitive, and savage.
• Although formal empires ended when countries gained independence, informal empires remained—many nations continued dependence on former colonial powers.
• Political, economic, and military controls were largely maintained through adoption of colonial power structures.

🛠️ Dismantling Strategies

🔓 Liberation

Liberation is defined as the social, cultural, economic, and political freedom and emancipation to have agency, control, and power over one's life.

Three interconnected levels:

• Individual/psychological liberation: ability to feel unconstrained by stereotypes and prejudiced ideas that manifest as discrimination.
• Collective/community liberation: when a group gains power and control over knowledge, systems, and institutions surrounding their lives.
• Critical consciousness: understanding the circumstances and conditions of oppression that limit freedom.

Key insight from Paulo Freire and Martín-Baró:

• Liberation is a social act, a process of becoming free from ideologies that limit freedom.
• Liberation is also a practice of working to create change.
• Liberation is the dismantling of oppression and power, striving to create social change that recognizes the humanity and dignity of all people.

Example: The Dakota Access Pipeline opposition—psychologists stood in opposition to construction that infringed on environmental health and sacred spaces of Indigenous communities.

🌐 Decoloniality

Decoloniality is characterized by a process of undoing, disrupting, and de-linking knowledge rooted in Eurocentric thinking that ignores or devalues the local knowledge, experiences, and expertise of non-western peoples or dominant social groups.

What decoloniality challenges:

• Coloniality: the power and control over people and knowledge.
• Colonialism: a process through which power and control are acquired, often through violence.
• The organization of peoples and worlds into categories.

Decoloniality in practice:

• Re-thinking and deconstructing Eurocentric/western ideologies and practices.
• Honoring and respecting the humanity of all communities, especially those institutionally marginalized.
• Valuing local knowledge, culture, and place.

Example: The "othering" of Indigenous communities by forcing them onto reservation lands and then occupying and exploiting these lands perpetuates oppression across generations.

⚡ Intersectionality (Black Feminist Thought)

Intersectionality describes the interlocking patterns of oppression and marginality that structure people's lives, opportunities, and enfranchisement.

• Developed by Kimberlé W. Crenshaw, rooted in Black feminist thought (Collins, Lorde, hooks, Combahee River Collective, Sojourner Truth).
• Emerged because Black women's concerns were neither fully addressed within the Civil Rights Movement nor the (white) feminist movement.
• Race, gender, sexuality, age, class, and able-bodiedness have social, legal, political, and economic implications.
• Provides a framework to examine and deconstruct structures of race and gender oppression.
• Offers implications for working toward solidarity among those advancing social justice.

Don't confuse: Intersectionality is not just about identity politics—it focuses on interlocking patterns of oppression, not simply differences.

🎯 Action Strategies in Practice

📢 Consciousness-raising

• Has roots in Pedagogy of the Oppressed and feminist movements.
• Recognizes that structural systems of oppression are found in categorical labeling used to exclude and separate.

Example—Language Reframing Project:

• Geri Palmer recognized that terms like "the homeless" and "homeless people" reflect core ideologies of the dominant majority and have roots in historical inequality.
• Goal: (1) Raise awareness of language and labeling and its negative implications; (2) Reframe language in discourse and reference to marginalized populations.
• Why it matters: Categorical labeling perpetuates oppression by dehumanizing and "othering" groups.

🏫 Social movements

• Recent examples: LGBTQ+ equal rights, #MeToo Movement, Black Lives Matter.
• Case Study—Chicano Student Movement (1968 East LA "Blowouts"):
  • Students responded to educational inequities: lack of resources, overcrowded classrooms, derogatory comments by teachers, prohibition of Spanish language, corporal punishment.
  • Dropout rates were as high as 60%.
  • Students organized walkouts; were met with police violence.
  • 13 male students were charged with conspiracy; charges dropped after community protests and litigation.
  • 50 years later, a "walk-in" commemorated the event, though students continue to struggle for higher education access.

🔄 Systems perspective

Dismantling power and oppression requires a community systems approach.

• Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory provides a framework, but human behavior is also networked—systems at different levels relate in an overlapping fashion.
• Historical events like colonialism and change across time necessitate continual re-examination and monitoring of power/oppression.
• Effective conceptualization requires looking at multifaceted, complex means by which power and oppression are executed and maintained.

💪 Empowerment Framework

📊 Levels of empowerment

Level	Definition	Example
Individual	Exercising control, increasing self-efficacy and personal power	Ed Roberts advocating for himself to graduate high school and attend university
Psychological	Awareness of power dynamics, developing skills for gaining control, directing action toward changing oppressive conditions	Women in the 1950s-60s becoming aware of power differentials at home and work, organizing collectively
Organizational	Empowering those within the organization; being effective in addressing organizational issues	Nurses in Canada gaining trust, access to information, resources, and career advancement opportunities
Community	Community has resources and talent to manage affairs, control and influence relevant forces, develop empowered leaders	Mental health service users in the 1970s-90s fighting for autonomy, patients' rights, and ADA legislation
Societal	Processes and structures affecting empowerment at all levels; equitable distribution of resources and opportunities	Addressing poverty through legislative action against workplace discrimination and removing barriers to political participation

🔄 Empowerment process model (Balcazar & Suarez-Balcazar)

Key stages:

1. Identify injustice: Individual recognizes an injustice or inequality experienced.
2. Awareness of historical context: Understanding historical inequalities, injustices, and grievances.
3. Network and organize: Connect with others facing similar issues.
4. Develop goals: Create advocacy goals to change mistreatment and marginalization.
5. Take action: Implement strategies (petitions, education campaigns, policy advocacy).
6. Navigate counteractions: Expect and respond to opposition from those in power.
7. Assess outcomes: Determine if power redistribution has been achieved; resume process if needed.

Factors determining effectiveness:

• Knowledge of rights and responsibilities.
• Level of skills and degree of self-efficacy.
• Cumulative experience, challenges, and successes.

Example: Joe, born with Down syndrome, experienced ridicule and overprotection. He later organized a People First chapter to advocate for accommodations and "People First Language Days" in schools and businesses, changing how people viewed and talked about disability.

🛠️ Tactics for community action

Understanding issues:

• Gather more information.
• Volunteer to help.

Public education:

• Give personal compliments and public support.
• Offer public education.

Direct action:

• Express opposition publicly.
• Make complaints.
• Mobilize public support (fundraising, demonstrations).
• Use the system (file formal complaints, seek mediators).
• Arrange media exposure.
• Organize boycotts.

🎓 Critical Distinctions

⚠️ True empowerment vs. self-efficacy alone

• Self-efficacy: developing a sense of personal power or mastery.
• Sometimes considered a "westernized" or "individualistic" construct—the belief that simply having confidence in one's ability is sufficient.
• True empowerment: requires both internal belief AND real change in one's life and environment.
• Change in self-efficacy without real change in conditions cannot truly be called empowerment.

🧩 Psychological empowerment components

• Increased awareness and understanding of factors influencing lives (power dynamics at multiple levels).
• Developing skills for gaining control (self-advocacy, coping techniques).
• Taking action directed toward changing conditions of oppression at multiple levels (home, work, society).
• Considering the role of context and external factors (not just internal beliefs).

🔍 Critical awareness (Paulo Freire)

• Most people experiencing social oppression do not necessarily act to change their reality because they have been taught to accept the dominant narrative.
• The oppressed come to believe in their inferiority and internalize their oppression.
• Marginalized individuals lack critical awareness to see injustices in their lives.
• They tend to be passive, unable to recognize their capacity to transform social realities.
• May accept low position as fate, bad luck, or supernatural forces.
• Helping people develop critical awareness is an important early step in empowerment.

🎯 Practical Applications

📚 Case study insights

Englewood, Chicago:

• Political factors: redistricting divided community into five districts, creating division and strife.
• Economic factors: banks refused loans (redlining), major stores refused to open branches.
• Socio-cultural factors: racial strife, white flight, African Americans moving in faced systemic barriers.

Proyecto Esfuerzo (Puerto Rico):

• Context: colonization, not self-determination; Hispanic traditions vs. Anglo-Saxon; underdevelopment vs. economic growth.
• 60% earned ≤$2,500 annually; 70% received public benefits; 22.7% unemployment; 99% food imported.
• Framework: six guidelines including familiarization, needs/resources assessment, linking reality, concrete activities, resident integration, transition, and project end.

School-based participatory action research:

• Students trained as peer mediators to resolve playground conflicts.
• Gave students increased control over recess time and conflict resolution skills.
• Students met with recess staff to determine how to work together more effectively.
• Challenge: parents felt powerless to make changes within the school.

This chapter emphasizes that addressing oppression and power requires understanding their interconnected nature, recognizing multiple forms and levels of power, and implementing comprehensive strategies that combine liberation, decoloniality, intersectionality, consciousness-raising, and systems-level interventions to achieve meaningful social change.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective community interventions require not only evidence-based program design but also active community participation, readiness for change, and attention to multiple ecological levels to create sustainable solutions to social problems.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Two intervention approaches: professionally-led interventions (expert-driven) vs. grassroots interventions (community participation and collaboration)
• Three pillars of success: effectiveness (evidence-based practices), implementation (community readiness and participation), and ecological transformation (addressing multiple system levels)
• Action research cycle: theory guides action → implement intervention → evaluate results → refine theory and practice
• Common confusion: having a well-designed program is not enough; implementation quality, community readiness, dose, and context all determine whether interventions succeed
• Why it matters: community interventions can prevent problems before they start, reduce costs, and create lasting change when communities actively participate in design and delivery

🏗️ Two approaches to community intervention

🏥 Professionally-led interventions

Professionally-led intervention: a program planned and implemented by professionals.

• An expert (e.g., mental health practitioner) designs and delivers the program
• Example: a psychologist teaching teenagers social skills to resist peer pressure for substance use
• The professional determines the content, methods, and delivery
• Community members are recipients rather than co-creators

🌱 Grassroots interventions

Grassroots intervention: an approach using participation and collaboration, where community members actively shape the intervention.

• Aligns with Community Psychology values of participation and collaboration
• Community members identify problems, set objectives, and decide on actions together
• Example: neighbors organizing to address security problems in their area
• Themes include prevention, social justice, and ecological understanding
• Don't confuse with: top-down programs where experts tell communities what to do; grassroots means the community drives the process

🎓 University housing exchange example

• University of Seville program matches students needing housing with elderly people, people with disabilities, or single mothers
• Students receive free housing; hosts receive companionship and help with tasks
• Based on social support and mutual help models
• University provides training, guidance, and monitoring
• Evaluation showed improved social support perceptions and psychological well-being
• Illustrates how interventions can benefit multiple parties through reciprocal exchange

🔬 Effectiveness: evidence-based practice

🔄 Action research cycle

• Rooted in Kurt Lewin's (1946) work on improving intergroup relations
• Three-step learning cycle:
  1. Theory guides action: use previous research to plan
  2. Implement: carry out the intervention
  3. Evaluate: use research to check effects
• Results change how we think about future interventions
• Community psychologists repeat these steps to continuously improve

📊 Drug abuse prevention example

• Research showed most adults with drug problems started as teenagers
• Risk factors: peer pressure, negative family/community models
• Effective programs have multiple components:
  • Skills training to resist social influence
  • Improved family communication
  • Reduced access to drugs
  • Media campaigns countering pro-drug messages
• Key insight: comprehensive actions across ecological levels work better than single-focus programs

🚭 Tobacco prevention case study

• School-based curriculum combined with media campaign for African American adolescents
• 472 elementary schools provided prevention booklets
• Newspaper included curriculum content on children's page
• Radio station aired talk show on parent-child communication about smoking
• Billboard contest for anti-smoking posters by children
• Results: both groups (curriculum + media vs. media only) showed decreased smoking, but curriculum group had significantly more knowledge about smoking dangers
• Demonstrates merit of community-wide, comprehensive preventive interventions

🛠️ Implementation: readiness and participation

🎯 What implementation means

Implementation: how well a program is carried out in practice, considering community readiness, participation, and context.

• A good design is not enough
• Success depends on:
  • How ready or interested the community is
  • Whether community members support and help design the program
  • Skills and knowledge of implementers
  • Available resources
  • Dose (intensity, continuity, duration)

📚 Classroom cotton bottle exercise

• Teacher demonstrated smoking effects by passing cigarette smoke through cotton in a bottle
• Cotton blackened, showing tar and harmful elements
• Implementation lesson: success depends not just on the demonstration but on:
  • When and where it occurs
  • Student and teacher investment
  • Larger community involvement (media, etc.)
  • Active participation in design and implementation

🌊 Community readiness concept

• Communities vary in awareness of social problems
• Example: tobacco was not seen as harmful before the 1960s; Surgeon General's report changed public perception
• Intimate partner violence example: one country had frequent TV debates and advocacy organizations (high readiness); another had little publicity or awareness (low readiness)
• More prevention programs launched in high-readiness contexts

🤝 Communities That Care program

• Aims to reduce drug dependency, criminal behavior, violence among adolescents
• Initiated through local community coalitions
• Different organizations collaborate for united action
• Adolescents receive consistent messages from multiple community agents
• Community agents participate in choosing evidence-based practices
• Jointly responsible for actions and adaptations to local context
• Dose matters: one session ≠ semester-long program; more exercise = stronger results
• Found to reduce alcohol, tobacco, and delinquent behavior

🎣 Fishing communities participatory research

• Analyzed social networks among fishermen at Guadalquivir River mouth
• Fishermen decided on conservation actions in a participatory way
• Network information helped identify over-exploited fishing grounds
• Communities self-regulated fishing practices
• Key lesson: involvement of communities in management was essential for effective implementation of policies

🌍 Transforming community contexts: ecological levels

🏠 Refugee integration example

• Spain: reception centers provided housing, food, health, language courses, employability workshops
• Problem: only small percentage found work; legal status prevented full integration
• Canada: same resources plus opportunities to fully participate in workforce
• Armenian family (Patatanian) succeeded in Canada after failing in Spain
• Lesson: interventions must transcend individual level and address higher ecological levels (e.g., employment opportunities)
• Second-order changes (structural changes) have more lasting, sustainable effects than first-order changes (individual-level only)

👶 Child labor prevention

• Child labor affects cognitive, affective, and social development
• Individual programs (self-esteem, social skills, academic motivation) are insufficient
• Must address environmental context: if parents need children to work for family survival, individual programs won't work
• Need to find better ways for parents to earn money

🌹 Edúcame Primero program

• Aims to reduce child labor through psychoeducational strategies and community collaboration
• Creates safe learning spaces in schools
• Involves families in children's education
• Uses "Spaces for Growth" methodology: complementary training workshops with active participation
• Promotes collaboration with teachers, professionals, community leaders, families
• Participants design workshops, configure content, adapt to educational center characteristics
• Evaluates community readiness by assessing:
  • Existing resources and key players
  • Previous experience with child labor programs
  • Level of awareness about child labor
  • Degree of community cohesion around needs
• Facilitators selected for teaching ability, community knowledge, and leadership skills
• Results: positive outcomes in preventing and reducing child labor
• International Labor Organization programs have decreased worldwide child labor prevalence by about 30% in two decades

📐 Multiple ecological levels illustrated

• Individual level: children's skills, motivation
• Family level: parent income, family communication
• Community level: school resources, community norms
• Societal level: laws, economic conditions, international programs
• Effective interventions address multiple levels simultaneously

🔑 Key implementation factors summary

✅ What makes interventions work

Factor	Description	Example
Evidence-based	Grounded in research on what works	Drug prevention programs with proven components
Community participation	Active involvement in design and delivery	Fishing communities deciding conservation actions
Community readiness	Awareness and willingness to address problem	High vs. low readiness for intimate partner violence prevention
Ecological approach	Addressing multiple system levels	Child labor programs working with children, families, schools, and policy
Adequate dose	Sufficient intensity, continuity, duration	Semester-long program vs. one session
Context fit	Adapted to local characteristics and needs	Facilitators with community knowledge

⚠️ Don't confuse

• Program design vs. implementation: a well-designed program can fail if poorly implemented or if the community is not ready
• Individual vs. ecological change: helping individuals cope is not the same as changing the systems that create problems
• One-time vs. sustained effort: like a muscle, programs need repeated exercise to be strong
• Expert-driven vs. participatory: professionally-led interventions are not the same as grassroots interventions where communities co-create solutions

This chapter emphasizes that community interventions succeed when they combine solid evidence, active community participation, attention to readiness and context, and action across multiple ecological levels to create sustainable change.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists influence public policy and organize communities through collaborative partnerships, coalitions, and strategic action cycles to address systemic social problems and promote social justice.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Policy process is cyclical: agenda setting → formation/adoption → implementation → evaluation/revision, requiring sustained commitment over years.
• Two organizing approaches: top-down (expert-led, more resources) vs. bottom-up (grassroots, community-led); both have value and are often combined.
• Multiple influence methods: research (conceptual and instrumental), consultation, program evaluation, coalition-building, and media communication.
• Common confusion: collaborative partnerships vs. coalitions—partnerships are typically formal, time-limited, expert-driven projects; coalitions tackle larger issues through diverse community representation over longer periods.
• Organizing cycle: assessment → research → mobilization (action) → reflection, repeated iteratively to create sustainable change.

🏛️ Understanding the policymaking process

🎯 Four stages of policy work

The policymaking process involves (1) agenda setting, (2) policy formation and adoption, (3) policy implementation, and (4) policy evaluation and revision.

Stage 1: Agenda setting

• Determines which social issues receive attention from those with power and influence.
• Only select problems make it onto the agenda for possible action.
• Kingdon's three streams influence what gets attention:
  • Problem stream: range of social issues affecting populations (unemployment, housing, addiction, homelessness).
  • Policy stream: potential solutions and their costs; practical, affordable solutions increase likelihood of consideration.
  • Political stream: level of public concern and willingness to devote resources.
• Example: If public officials don't consider climate change important, they devote little time/energy to it.

Stage 2: Policy formation and adoption

• A solution to address the social issue is adopted.
• Can occur in legislative bodies (elected officials vote on laws).
• Can occur at executive level (president, mayor) through executive orders.
• Agencies within executive branch can adopt policies.
• Example: Department of Housing and Urban Development moving resources into Housing First to address homelessness.

Stage 3: Policy implementation

• How a policy is carried out after adoption.
• Well-designed policies can fail if inadequate funds are provided.
• Example: A school prevention program compromised when the district provides insufficient funds for books and resources.

Stage 4: Policy evaluation and revision

• Determine if the policy had its intended outcomes.
• Assess whether it can be improved or needs replacement.
• Example: No Child Left Behind Act aimed to address educational inequity through standardized testing but had unintended consequences (too much emphasis on testing, some school closures), leading to revision efforts.

🔄 Cyclical nature

• The process is recursive—it repeats and feeds back into itself.
• Community psychologists can engage at multiple points throughout the cycle.
• Long-term commitment is essential; policy change often takes many years.

🛠️ How community psychologists influence policy

👥 Roles and settings

Intermediary organizations

• Professional membership organizations, foundations, research/evaluation firms.
• Examples: Mathematica, Urban Institute (conduct policy evaluations for federal agencies).
• William T. Grant Foundation (funds policy initiatives addressing social issues).
• SCRA (Society for Community Research and Action): issues policy statements, rapid responses, provides resources/training through Public Policy Committee.

University faculty roles

• Develop expertise in policy areas.
• Generate research with policy implications and recommendations.
• Advocate for empirically supported policies.
• Work as policy consultants for advocacy organizations.
• Educate students on policy-relevant issues.

Policy insiders

• Work within local, state, and federal government.
• Obtained through direct election, appointment by elected official, or employment as civil servant.
• Examples: congressional staffer, local school board member.
• Oversee policy implementation and possibly create new legislation.

🔬 Methods for influencing policy

Research

• Conceptual research: educates policymakers on social issues and proposes solutions; helps reframe issues as systemic problems rather than individual deficits.
  • Example: Kenneth and Mamie Clark's research on harmful psychological effects of segregation, cited in Brown vs Board of Education Supreme Court decision.
• Instrumental research: persuades policymakers to adopt specific policies.
  • Example: Disability community using research to bring about accessibility changes (wheelchair-accessible curbs, building access, transportation).

Consultation

• Share research and advocacy expertise with organizations or governmental agencies.
• Often begins with personal relationships with policymakers and officials.
• Provide policymakers with relevant evidence and data.
• Example: Community psychologists providing expertise on efforts to reduce human trafficking and condemn white supremacist terrorism.

Program evaluation

• Examine whether social programs work well, for whom, under what conditions, and how they can improve.
• Particularly important in implementation and evaluation stages.
• Example: Meals on Wheels evaluations found positive outcomes for meal recipients; findings used to make programs more effective.

Coalition-building

• Use communication and relationship-building skills to form coalitions.

Coalitions: groups sharing a common policy interest who agree to work together to influence or develop public policy.

• Effective way to influence policy.
• Example: Nelson Mandela inspired coalitions that successfully abolished apartheid in South Africa.

Media and written communication

• Multimedia outlets: news radio, television, podcasts (often informal, targeting voters).
• "White papers": concise scientific evidence and recommendations for decision-makers (formal, straightforward, sensitive to busy schedules).
• Communication strategies vary by audience.
• Example: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring identified pesticide abuses and helped start the global environmental movement.

📋 Selecting issues and developing action plans

Choosing an issue

• Examine alignment with your interests, skills, and access to resources (time, funds, materials, energy).
• Use tools like the Advocacy Self-Assessment to evaluate:
  • Commitment: willingness to put in effort over many years.
  • Centrality: personal meaning and importance relative to other issues.
  • Resources: membership in activist groups, supportive network, access to time/funds/materials, capabilities and confidence.

Staying informed

• Listen to news and follow current events locally and nationally.
• Track bills and resolutions before city council or congress.
• Monitor procedures by executive offices and Supreme Court cases.
• Use tools like GovTrack website to see where bills are in legislative process.

Contacting policymakers

• Write letters or make phone calls to federal/state elected officials at local or capital offices.
• Use social media (e.g., Twitter) or email to express concerns about legislation.
• Tools like Resist Bot automate faxes and messages.

Engaging with organizations

• Find local and national organizations focused on your issue of interest.
• Get on email lists and follow on social media.
• Participate in events, town halls, Capitol Hill days.
• Explore volunteer or internship positions.

🤝 Collaborative partnerships and organizing

🏢 What are collaborative partnerships?

Collaborative partnership: a reciprocal relationship between two or more people with a shared goal in mind.

• Often dynamic, characterized by constant change, activity, or progress.
• Common in Community Psychology: partnerships with organizations serving oppressed groups.
• Provide solutions to dwindling resources in public sector.
• Assist when organizations lack expertise in certain areas.
• Example: Community psychologist partnering with YMCA Caldwell Center to gather feedback from diverse population through focus groups and surveys, enabling evidence-based grant writing.

⬇️ Top-down vs. bottom-up approaches

Top-down approach

• Designed by experts or community leaders often not part of the affected community.
• Benefits: expertise and legitimacy.
• Risks: may lose community needs/voices in translation; may reinforce existing power structures.
• Example: Seeking therapist services for mental health care; city mandate for schools to send snacks home with children in food deserts.

Bottom-up approach (grassroots)

• Designed by community members rather than experts/professionals.
• Originates at grassroots level.
• Benefits: embraces Community Psychology values; reflects community experiences.
• Example: Self-help groups for mental health; community garden initiative where local residents plant and tend gardens (Urban Seeds in Evansville, Indiana).

Combined approaches

• Neither approach is inherently best; both offer benefits.
• Bottom-up embraces Community Psychology values; top-down provides resources (funding, expertise).
• Many successful efforts combine both approaches.
• Important considerations: discuss values/goals early, define terms, address conflict resolution, determine relationship duration, revisit agreements as needed.

🌐 Community coalitions

Community coalitions: bring together representation of community citizens and organizations—both private and public—to address large social problems at multiple levels within a community.

Structure and function

• Tackle larger social issues beyond scope of collaborative partnerships.
• Members agree upon mission, vision, and shared values.
• Write and implement action plans.
• Work carried out by coalition itself or affiliated organizations.
• Strengthen citizen participation.
• Hold potential to change policy at local and state levels.
• Increase community resources.

Two coalition examples

Type	Example	Characteristics
Grassroots, coalition-led	Congregations Acting for Justice and Empowerment	22 religious organizations; listening sessions with hundreds; decide on 1-2 issues yearly; develop evidence-based action plans; success: equipped officers/firefighters with Narcan
Multi-organization, affiliate-led	Community Action Program of Evansville	Developed in 1960s; Board of Directors from three counties; 24 programs (Head Start, Financial Literacy, Emergency Pantry); success: affordable apartment-style housing

🔄 The cycle of community organizing

📊 Four stages of organizing

1. Assessment

• Understand what resources already exist.
• Conduct one-on-one or small group meetings.
• Survey representative samples when possible.
• Key questions: What issues do people face? Can they access resources? Are there disparities in access? Do stakeholders understand processes?
• Example: Student organization assessing mental health resources on campus.

2. Research

• Meet with leaders to understand funding and resource allocation.
• Understand programming goals and how concerns are addressed.
• Hold public meetings to raise concerns and build support.
• Example: Meeting with dean of students and counseling center; holding public forums.

3. Mobilization (Action)

• Host awareness-raising events.
• Create and distribute petitions.
• Participate in sit-ins, marches, publish opinion pieces.
• Create social media campaigns with hashtags.
• Encourage community members to share stories.
• Example: Petition for more counseling center funding; awareness events; social media campaign.

4. Reflection

• Reflect on what happened: what went well, what didn't, what's next.
• Ideal organizers are curious, irreverent, imaginative.
• Have good sense of humor, vision of better world, organized personality.
• Consider intended impact and outcomes.
• Measure change over time.
• Example: Student leaders reflecting on campaign effectiveness; planning next assessment.

📏 Measuring impact

Considerations

• Systemic change takes time; communities need time to see full effects.
• Some outcomes are easy to measure (wait times, number of withdrawals).
• Some outcomes are harder to measure (reduction in stigma).
• Requires thinking ahead about positive/negative factors affecting ability to judge change.

Common obstacles

• Representativeness of coalition and outcomes.
• Control of the independent variable (the coalition).
• Identification of extraneous variables and interactions.
• Determining what outcomes to measure and how.
• Changes over time in understanding and measurement.
• Desire to present results favorably.

Don't confuse: The complexity of measurement doesn't mean we shouldn't try—find new ways to measure what matters in reasonable and scientifically valid ways.

🚧 Challenges and principles

⚠️ Major challenges

Time commitment

• Policy adoption, implementation, and revision can take many years.
• Key lesson: stay committed to social issues for the long run.
• Look to civil rights, women's rights, environmental rights movements—these took decades.

Navigating power

• Powerful stakeholders with different vested interests may actively oppose efforts.
• Power holders often like things to stay the same, especially if they gain resources/privileges.
• Example: National Rifle Association's powerful role in shaping dialogue on gun availability.

Partisanship and cultural moods

• Political party membership influences policymaker receptiveness.
• Broader cultural and societal moods influence policy consideration.
• Example: School shootings—concern may spike after local event; proposed solutions vary widely (weapon restriction, increased security, arming teachers); costs, feasibility, and evidence must be evaluated.

💡 Principles for navigating challenges

See the big picture

• Identify who the power holders are.
• Understand their motives for maintaining control.
• Recognize the influence and power they wield.

Work toward second-order change

• Aim for structural and long-term change, not just short-term fixes.
• Work with coalitions and allies to form strategies.
• Confront those abusing power.
• Example: Youth traumatized by school shootings and parents of victims becoming powerful agents of change.

Stay committed over time

• Provides opportunities to know central gatekeepers.
• Savor small wins to sustain motivation toward long-term goals.
• Patience and persistence are crucial.

Use intuition

• Involves a feeling or sense of next steps in strategic coalition-building or political action.
• Having a vision and sustaining it with intuition helps overcome obstacles.
• Conjuring up a dream can be a sustaining, life-affirming force.

🏛️ Historical perspective and democratic participation

🗳️ The Democracy Quiz

Key question: "Who has the power to make decisions?"

• This simple question reveals whether there is power-sharing or whether an elite, non-elected group is totally in charge.
• Apply this to any setting: college, school, workplace.

Current reality

• Millions of Americans are in total institutions: substance abuse treatment settings, nursing homes, mental institutions, prisons, schools.
• In many cases, participatory spirit of decision-making is hardly noticeable.
• Those with fewest resources, greatest needs, and least opportunities often have minimal input on decision-making.

Need for change

• Individuals discharged from institutions need settings where they can participate as full members with responsibility and dignity.
• Policy-level change efforts are needed for those most in need.
• Self-help movements show possibilities when individuals are provided decision-making responsibilities and power.

🌍 Historical context

Past vs. present

• There was a time when people helped one another naturally, not out of charity.
• Over time: weakening of long-term bonds with land, family, and community.
• Reduction in sense of coherence and interest in community participation.
• Computer and artificial intelligence/robotics revolutions create challenges for larger population segments.

Deepest policy interventions

• Need to ultimately strengthen relationships and customs that make life more vital, energizing, and comprehensible.
• Address historical factors to understand what caused problems and what policies might be considered.
• Example issues: student debt, increasing economic inequalities, school violence.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Behavioral Community Psychology applies learning principles to break down large social problems into smaller, measurable behaviors that can be changed through targeted interventions in community settings, leading to sustainable improvements.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core method: Breaking complex community problems into specific, observable behaviors that can be measured and changed systematically.
• Key principles: Uses reinforcement, punishment, stimulus control, and shaping from learning theory to influence behavior in real-world community settings.
• Small wins strategy: Focuses on achievable, concrete changes that build momentum and sustain community engagement over time.
• Common confusion: Behavioral approaches are not just for clinical settings—they can address community-level issues like traffic safety, environmental concerns, and public health when combined with Community Psychology values.
• Policy impact: Behavioral data collection can influence legislation and create second-order change affecting entire populations.

🧬 Foundations and core concepts

🧬 What Behavioral Community Psychology is

Behavioral Community Psychology: the application of behavioral approaches combined with Community Psychology values to address social and community problems through focused, measurable interventions.

• Takes behavioral methods traditionally used in hospitals/institutions and applies them to community settings (homes, neighborhoods, public spaces).
• Breaks down large, overwhelming problems into smaller, solvable components.
• Focuses on observable, measurable behaviors rather than abstract concepts.
• Example: Instead of tackling "urban cleanliness" broadly, focus on the specific behavior of dog owners picking up waste.

🔬 Core behavioral principles

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov, 1890s):

• Learning through association between environmental stimuli.
• Example: Dogs learned to associate a sound with food delivery and began salivating to the sound alone.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner):

• Behavior changes based on consequences (rewards/punishments).
• Rats learned to press levers when the behavior was followed by food rewards.

Key terms:

• Positive reinforcement: Increases likelihood a behavior will continue.
• Punishment: Reduces the rate or likelihood of a behavior.
• Extinction: When a behavior stops occurring due to lack of reinforcement.
• Shaping: Building complex behaviors through a series of steps.
• Stimulus control: How environmental characteristics influence behavior occurrence.

🎓 Additional developments

Observational Learning (Bandura, 1986):

• People learn by watching others engage in behaviors.
• Example: A child learns to use a fork by observing a parent.
• Important for understanding how aggressive behavior spreads when violence is observed and reinforced.

Behavioral Economics:

• Explains seemingly irrational choices (e.g., eating unhealthy foods despite knowing health risks).
• These choices can still be understood through reinforcement principles—immediate rewards (taste) outweigh delayed consequences (health problems).

🛠️ Applied Behavior Analysis in communities

🛠️ What Applied Behavior Analysis involves

Applied Behavior Analysis: systematic approach to understanding and explaining human behavior as a function of the interaction between behavior and the environment.

• Rooted in Learning Theory: focuses on objectively observable behaviors and how learning occurs through environmental responses.
• Also called Behavior Modification: systematic application of learning principles to assess and change behavior.
• Uses positive reinforcement and punishment to teach and sustain behaviors at individual and community levels.

📊 Measurement and observation

The approach emphasizes:

• Defining specific, observable behaviors (not vague concepts).
• Collecting baseline data before intervention.
• Measuring behavior changes over time.
• Using direct observation in natural settings.

Example from dog waste study:

• Counted all fresh dog feces in target area (1,147 found).
• Observed dogs and owners for five hours daily.
• Recorded: number of dogs, number who defecated, number of owners who picked up.
• Weighed all defecations each morning (over 19 pounds during baseline).

🎯 Stimulus control in action

Stimulus control: how characteristics of the environment influence the occurrence of a behavior.

Traffic light case study demonstrates this principle:

• Problem: Two traffic lights 100 feet apart; first turned green, second immediately turned yellow-to-red.
• Driver behavior: Over 50% ran the second light, causing many accidents.
• Environmental change: Altered light timing so second light wasn't changing when drivers approached.
• Result: Almost all drivers stopped appropriately; accidents decreased.
• Key insight: Small environmental change (stimulus) dramatically altered behavior without requiring driver education or enforcement.

🌟 Community Psychology values in behavioral work

🌟 Ten guiding values (Fawcett, 1991)

Behavioral Community Psychology differs from traditional behavioral work by embracing these principles:

1. Collaborative relationships: Working with communities, not on them.
2. Community-relevant focus: Addressing behavior-environment relationships important to communities.
3. Modifiable and sustainable: Research focuses on environmental events communities can actually change and maintain.
4. Relevant settings and measures: Using research methods that matter to community concerns.
5. Dynamic measurement: Capturing the ongoing relationship between behavior and environment.
6. Community ownership: Interventions owned by the community and sustainable with local resources.
7. Maximizing impact: Focusing on benefits to the community.
8. Spreading effectiveness: Sharing successful interventions.
9. Effective communication: Communicating clearly to community stakeholders.
10. Fundamental change: Contributing to second-order, systemic change.

🤝 Community-driven problem selection

• The community identifies what issues matter most (not researchers imposing their priorities).
• Example: Alderman identified dog waste as the most pressing issue; researcher committed to addressing it despite initial surprise.
• This approach ensures interventions address real community needs and gain community support.

🏛️ Policy-level interventions and second-order change

🏛️ Child car restraint legislation case

The problem:

• Leading cause of death for children under one year: car accidents.
• Thousands of children injured or killed annually.
• 93% of Illinois children not placed in adequate restraints.

The behavioral intervention:

• Collected observational data: looked inside cars to see if children were in restraints.
• Conducted telephone surveys: 78% of adults supported restraint legislation.
• Sent data to randomly selected half of Illinois state legislators before vote.

The results:

• 79% of senators who received data voted for the bill.
• Only 53% of senators without data voted for it.
• Bill passed and was signed into law.

The impact:

• Restraint use increased: 13% to 42% for ages 1-4; 49% to 74% for infants under 1.
• Children's traffic deaths decreased by 53%.

🎯 Why policy change matters

Approach	Scope	Sustainability	Example
Individual therapy	Helps one person at a time	Requires ongoing resources	Treating car accident victims
Policy change	Affects entire populations	Self-sustaining once law passes	Requiring child restraints

• Working at the policy level creates more substantial and enduring results.
• Behavioral data provides concrete evidence to persuade legislators.
• One successful policy change can prevent thousands of injuries/deaths.

🚸 Traffic safety in Latino neighborhoods

Community-identified concern:

• Latino parents of children with disabilities worried about traffic safety.
• Cars speeding, not stopping for crosswalks.
• Additional barriers for youth with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.

Behavioral assessment:

• Observed 25 intersections in target neighborhood.
• Recorded: cars stopping at stop signs, complete stops (5+ seconds), yielding to pedestrians.

Findings:

• Only 1 in 3 cars stopped at stop signs.
• Only half stopped before crosswalks for pedestrians.

Community action:

• Families participated in community health walk.
• Created bilingual signs: "Do not text and drive," "Maneja con cuidado" [drive carefully].
• Raised awareness of safe driving practices.

Key features:

• Target population actively involved in all aspects.
• Fostered empowerment through families designing signs and selecting streets.
• Used both objective (observations) and subjective (surveys) assessments.
• Interdisciplinary collaboration (community psychology, occupational therapy, nutrition, public health).

🌊 Large-scale community mobilization

🌊 The I-Files: Big Island health initiative

Origin:

• Began during behavioral training workshop in Honolulu, 1997.
• Public health workers from multiple Hawaiian islands attended.
• One table of nurses, health educators, and district health officer developed idea.

The model:

• Six districts on Big Island, each with three-person teams:
  • Community mobilization and action planning specialist
  • Grant writing specialist
  • Behavioral evaluation specialist
• Develop community partnerships to address pressing health issues.
• Mobilize people and financial resources.

Behavioral accomplishments (continuing to present day):

• Drug and alcohol-free surf competition for teens.
• Fire department leadership program training teens in firefighting and community service.
• Coalition of businesses, fishermen, and residents to minimize destructive fishing practices.
• Coalition supporting Ka'u Hospital and preventing diabetes.
• Neighborhood watch and diabetes self-management programs.
• Community policing programs.

Success factors:

• Empowered community health workers to respond to emerging needs.
• Created coalitions representing multiple community sectors.
• Programs and policies developed by and with community members.
• Involved both community members and public health workforce.
• Long-term positive influence through relevant, sustainable programming.

⚠️ Important considerations and limitations

⚠️ Competing environmental influences

Don't confuse: Behavioral interventions don't operate in isolation—they compete with other messages.

• School smoking prevention programs were undermined when stores sold cigarettes to youth.

• Youth wondered how dangerous cigarettes could be if adults sold them.

• Solution: Additional interventions needed to reduce youth access to tobacco at retail sources.

• Childhood obesity programs compete with constant media advertising of high-sugar, high-fat foods.

• Media influences must also be addressed for programs to succeed.

🏫 Context and resources matter

Age differences in intervention effectiveness:

Study on preventing prejudice through peer tutoring:

• First-graders: Inter-ethnic interactions increased, sociometric choices improved, academic grades improved, benefits carried to playground, effects lasted 8+ months.
• Third-graders: No significant changes in ratings of children from different ethnic backgrounds.

Why the difference?

• First-graders had shorter history of competitive academic exercises.
• Ethnic prejudice less ingrained in younger children.
• Suggests importance of early intervention.

Resource differences:

• An intervention working well in well-resourced schools may fail in under-resourced settings.
• Settings with inadequate staff, resources, gangs, or violence present different challenges.
• Same intervention, different contexts = potentially different outcomes.

🔄 Universal principles, varied implementation

The debate:

• Some argue there are no generalizable laws of behavior for something as complex as communities.
• Communities have complicated ecological layers (individual, group, organizational, societal).

The response:

• Learning principles reviewed in this chapter do operate in community settings.
• However, implementation differs across settings.
• An excellent intervention in one setting might not work in another less supportive environment.
• The principles are universal; the application must be adapted to context.

💡 The small wins approach

💡 Why small wins matter

Small wins: concrete, achievable changes of moderate importance that make risks seem tolerable and manageable.

When proposed changes are large and sweeping:

• Increases feelings of threat.
• Increases community resistance to change.
• Leads to inaction among change agents.

When proposed changes are small and concrete:

• Risks seem more tolerable and manageable.
• Attracts allies.
• Prevents inaction.
• Deters opponents.

📚 Example: Task Force on Gay Liberation

The small win:

• Changed how Library of Congress classified books on gay liberation movement.
• Before 1972: Books assigned numbers for "abnormal sexual relations, sexual crimes, and sexual perversions."
• After 1972: Homosexuality no longer subcategory of abnormal relations; entries described as "varieties of sexual life."

Why it mattered:

• Labels and technical classifications became turf for staking claims.
• Small changes attracted attention.
• Recruited allies.
• Gave opponents second thoughts.
• Demonstrated that change was possible.

🔨 Building momentum

Small wins are reinforcing:

• Success feels good and motivates continued effort.
• Recognition of successes sustains community organizing work.
• Each small win builds capacity and confidence for larger changes.
• Example: Dog waste ordinance in Chicago became model for towns nationwide.

🎯 Practical applications across issues

🎯 Range of behavioral community interventions

The excerpt mentions successful applications to:

Issue	Behavioral Focus	Outcome Type
Littering	Observable disposal behavior	Environmental improvement
Recycling	Sorting and disposal actions	Sustainability
Illegal cigarette sales to minors	Vendor compliance	Youth health protection
Drug addiction	Treatment engagement behaviors	Health recovery
School bullying	Aggressive vs. prosocial behaviors	School climate
Blood donations	Donation participation	Community health resource
Dog waste	Owner pick-up behavior	Public health and cleanliness
Traffic safety	Driver compliance with signs/lights	Injury/death prevention

🔍 Key methodological features

Operational definitions:

• Define behaviors precisely so they can be observed and measured.
• Example: "Complete stop" = car not moving for minimum of 5 seconds.

Direct observation:

• Researchers observe behavior in natural settings.
• Example: Standing on street corners recording traffic patterns.

Baseline measurement:

• Collect data before intervention to establish starting point.
• Allows comparison to show change.

Systematic intervention:

• Apply specific behavioral principles (reinforcement, stimulus control, shaping).
• Example: Instructions and demonstration for dog owners on using plastic bags.

Outcome measurement:

• Continue measuring behavior during and after intervention.
• Example: 82% of dog owners picked up after demonstration, compared to very few during baseline.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community psychologists work collaboratively with oppressed communities using ethical, non-hierarchical means to challenge structural violence and create sustainable social change through praxis and empowerment.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Structural violence focus: Attention should be on actors, policies, and structures that harm communities, not just individual suffering—"focus on who profits from the problem, not who suffers."
• Empowerment vs. hierarchy: Work with communities (empowerment) rather than for them (needs-based) or imposing solutions from above; community members are best positioned to identify problems and solutions.
• Means matter as much as ends: Ethical means are essential—using oppressive tactics to fight oppression replicates harm; Gandhi and King's nonviolent approaches contrast with "any means necessary" philosophies.
• Common confusion: Empowerment does not mean psychologists "empower" others; it is a collaborative process where all parties work together to increase collective efficacy and self-determination.
• Praxis and sustainability: Social change requires cycles of action, research, reflection, and adjustment over time, supported by alternative settings and self-care to avoid burnout.

🏛️ Understanding oppression and structural violence

🏛️ What is structural violence

Structural violence: harm caused not only by individual actors but by unjust laws, dehumanizing structures, and environmental features—all created by human beings.

• Violence and oppression are embedded in systems, not just individual actions.
• Example: Guantánamo Bay detention camp and CIA black sites represent oppressive systems where torture was institutionalized.
• Amos Wilson's insight: "If you want to understand any problem in America, you need to focus on who profits from that problem, not who suffers from the problem."

🔍 The psychology of oppression (Freire)

• Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed describes oppressors' psychology as hierarchical, suppressive, and dehumanizing.
• Oppressors will never liberate the oppressed; liberation must come from the oppressed themselves with allies.
• "An eye for an eye" thinking just replaces one oppressor with another, keeping dehumanizing structures intact.
• Don't confuse: Working to change structures is different from simply reversing who holds power while maintaining the same oppressive systems.

🔓 Generative themes and community voice

• Generative themes: the core issues that face a group, identified by community members themselves (Freire's concept).
• Community members are the experts on their own problems and must participate in solutions.
• Example: Disability community's phrase "nothing about us without us" when the UN created the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities without their input—they successfully demanded participation.

🤝 Empowerment and participatory approaches

🤝 The Third Way of Empowerment (Rappaport)

Empowerment: a collaborative process where all parties work together to bring about collective efficacy and equalize power throughout society.

• Julian Rappaport coined the term but cautioned against psychologists claiming they "empower" others.
• Empowerment is something done with people, not to or for them.

📊 Three approaches compared

Approach	Focus	Problem
Needs-based	Pathologies, limitations, dependencies	Puts community members in dependent, hierarchical position
Rights-based	Fighting "for" communities	Too easy to adopt position of fighting "for" but not "with"
Empowerment (Third Way)	Working "with" communities	Requires true collaboration and shared power

🎓 Education vs. training

• Bobby E. Wright's distinction: Training teaches "what to think" and creates dependence; education teaches "how to think" and develops independent skills.
• Freire's pedagogy: non-hierarchical education where teacher is also student and student is also teacher.
• Collaboration and dialogue are central—everyone works toward mutually-decided goals.

🔄 The paradox of empowerment

• Rappaport's concept of paradox: two apparently contradictory truths can coexist.
• Example: Coalition for an Ethical Psychology engaged in empowerment work without direct contact with prisoners—they highlighted the side not receiving attention, which is still empowerment.
• Don't confuse: Empowerment work doesn't always require direct contact; investigating and exposing injustice on behalf of those who cannot speak is valid empowerment.

⚖️ Ethical means and praxis

⚖️ Why means matter

Praxis: putting an idea or theory into practice through repetitive cycles of learning, action, and reflection.

• Ethics, morals, and values are essential parts of praxis.
• Debate: Some activists (Saul Alinsky, early Malcolm X) believed any means justified if the goal is just; others argue means must be ethical.
• Audre Lorde: "the master's tools will never dismantle the master's house"—using oppression and violence to fight oppression may not be effective or just.
• Malcolm X's transformation: After visiting Mecca, he shifted from "any means necessary" to emphasizing love and collaboration.

📊 Alinsky vs. Gandhi comparison

Activist	Approach	Means
Saul Alinsky	Confidently insulting power, using deception	Any means to reach objectives; "use their rules against them"
Gandhi	Nonviolence, humility, love for all	Ethical means; civil disobedience without replicating oppressive tactics

• Example: Gandhi's salt march—defied British salt tax through peaceful march to collect sea salt, inspiring all of India without violence.
• Tolkien's ring analogy: A tool of power intended for good can only be used for evil—means corrupt the ends.

🪞 Self-purification process

• Inward journey alongside outward activism: examining one's own imbalances, flaws, virtues, and motivations.
• Key question: Are motivations for accomplishing one's own goals or for advocacy of others?
• Pauli Murray's modest realism: "I personally failed, but I have lived to see the thesis upon which I was operating vindicated...I've lived to see my lost causes found."
• Gandhi's daily purification: visible in how he dressed, ate, and responded to attacks—sacrifice shifts public perception and galvanizes support.
• Don't confuse: Self-purification is not self-flagellation; it's about maintaining ethical grounding and avoiding hatred of opponents ("critical kinship").

🗣️ Language and partnership

• Words matter: Terms like "the disenfranchised," "vulnerable," "marginalized," "high risk" can be oppressive.
• "Community organizer" suggests hierarchy where one person is in charge—contradicts collaborative spirit.
• Address colonization and dehumanization ethically without replicating oppressors' tactics.

🔄 Praxis cycles and sustainable activism

🔄 The praxis cycle

• Praxis involves cycles of: community input → research → action → reflection.
• See what works and what doesn't; let go of ineffective tactics to search for new creative approaches.
• Plan for readjustments, adaptations, setbacks, small wins, and unexpected barriers.
• Long-term commitment is the best ally, along with community allies.

🏠 Alternative settings

• Seymour Sarason's concept: creating settings that support social justice values.
• When impossible to change oppressive settings from within, seek or create new settings aligned with values.
• Alternative settings provide essential "home base" for sustainable activist work.
• Example: Coalition for an Ethical Psychology created collaborative, non-hierarchical space for activist work.

📋 Logic models for planning

Logic model: an outline and theoretical structure showing how assets and activities help obtain short, intermediate, and long-term goals.

• Visual representation with concepts and arrows shows whole plan at a glance.
• Group can discuss and revise together, connecting with experiences and objectives.
• Helps break through barriers and reach long-term objectives.

🌱 Sustainability strategies

• Pace oneself to avoid burnout.
• Ensure self-care and mutual education at every stage.
• Measure short and long-term success: What actions helped? What was the active combination of ingredients?
• Build capacity when campaigns fizzle; hold onto small wins and keep going.
• Don't confuse: Sustainability is not about quick victories but about maintaining momentum through cycles of action and reflection.

📚 Case studies in action

📚 Coalition for an Ethical Psychology

• Community psychologist, psychoanalyst, historian, and clinical psychologists formed non-hierarchical coalition.
• Exposed APA collusion with national security sector in torture program at Guantánamo and CIA black sites.
• Worked with allies and stakeholders to generate media coverage (New York Times articles).
• Led to Hoffman Report documenting APA Ethics Code subversions.
• Result: Increased accountability within APA.
• Lesson: Psychologists can combat oppressive injustice and human rights violations through collaborative activism.

📚 Students and the Cold Case Act

• High school Government and Politics class learned about 128 unsolved lynchings of African Americans.
• Students drafted bill to force release of withheld Justice Department case files.
• Conducted research, met with victims' families, strategic media campaign.
• Engaged lawmakers and President through social media and advocacy.
• President signed bill into law.
• Lesson: Students can successfully challenge structural violence (withheld information) through community organizing and speaking truth to power.

📚 Vincentians Against Torture Coalition

• Jack O'Brien organized petition and coalition after university official was implicated in Hoffman Report.
• Collaborated with local human rights organizations and student groups.
• Organized press conference, media coverage, protests.
• Short-term: Official not removed immediately.
• Long-term: Both university President and official eventually left institution.
• Continued investment in torture/human rights issue at national level.
• Lesson: Meaningful change requires long-term commitment; protests and media attention contribute to eventual outcomes even without immediate success.

🎯 Key principles for community psychologists

🎯 Working from the bottom up

• Non-hierarchical approach, working from grassroots sources.
• Voices of the people are the main data.
• Praxis has improvisational quality—experimentation at its best.

🎯 Mutual education and respect

• Mutually educate each other to reach complete understandings of issues.
• Facilitators are part of the process, intentional and respectful.
• Use ecological lens combined with respect for community partners.

🎯 Exposing daily injustices

• Roy Eidelson's advice: Call attention to daily injustices (working for less than living wage, discrimination in housing, education, law enforcement).
• First step in challenging and changing dehumanizing structures.
• Find paradoxes and tension points; show the world the abuses.

🎯 Honesty, truth, and long-term vision

• Use honesty and truth as primary tools.
• Advocate for long-term change, not quick fixes.
• Work toward more equitable distribution of resources for a better world.
• Don't confuse: Activism is not about single events or marches; it's a sustained process requiring patience, adaptation, and community partnership.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Community Psychology offers diverse educational pathways—from undergraduate concentrations to doctoral programs—that equip students with research and practice competencies to pursue careers focused on social justice, empowerment, and systemic change.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Educational options exist at multiple levels: undergraduate concentrations, master's programs (2–3 years, practice-focused), and doctoral programs (4–6 years, research-intensive).
• Core competencies span five themes: foundational principles, program development, capacity building, social change, and community research.
• Career paths vary widely: non-profits, healthcare, education, public policy, government, consulting, and academia.
• Common confusion—master's vs. doctoral focus: master's programs emphasize practice and applied work; doctoral programs emphasize advanced research and theory, though both prepare students for multiple career options.
• Engagement in the field matters: joining SCRA, attending conferences, networking, and disseminating work help grow the field and create social change.

🎓 Educational pathways in Community Psychology

🎓 Undergraduate programs

• Few universities offer a significant Community Psychology focus at the undergraduate level; most have a single course.
• Some institutions have developed concentrations or degrees that include multiple content courses plus community-based practicum/fieldwork/internship experiences.
• Students may work with non-profit organizations addressing mental health, homelessness, domestic violence, or LGBTQ issues.
• Even without a formal concentration, students can seek Community Psychology-relevant internships through career centers or advisors.
• Why it matters: Undergraduate training in Community Psychology is transferable to many career paths—clinical psychology, counseling, social work, law, public health, education—and provides skills in research, evaluation, systems theory, and intervention.
• Practical tip: Reach out to faculty engaged in Community Psychology research; volunteer positions provide invaluable experience and skills.

🎓 Master's programs

• About 75 graduate programs worldwide are identified as community research and action programs; they may be called Community Psychology, community social psychology, clinical-community psychology, counseling, or interdisciplinary programs.
• Key features:
  • More intensive theory-practice integration than undergraduate programs.
  • Intensive practicum experiences.
  • Less emphasis on research and advanced statistics than doctoral programs; more emphasis on practice.
• Timeline: approximately 2–3 years.
• Many students enroll part-time and work full-time in local community organizations, creating opportunities to apply new knowledge immediately.
• Example: In many countries, master's programs are the most typical post-graduate option and prepare students for practice careers.

🎓 Doctoral programs

• About 45 self-identified community research and action doctoral programs exist, primarily in the US but also worldwide.
• Key features:
  • Advanced theory, practice, and comprehensive research competencies.
  • Prepare students for many career options: academia, community-based organizations, healthcare, education, public policy, government, foundations, business.
• Timeline: 4–6 years.
• Clinical-community vs. Community Psychology programs:
  • Clinical-community: training in both clinical areas (psychopathology, therapy, assessment) and Community Psychology.
  • Community Psychology: no clinical training; interdisciplinary education with Community Psychology as the central focus.
• Traditional doctoral education emphasizes discovery and production of new knowledge through field-specific, mentor-based research.
• Increasingly, doctoral programs also train students in practice competencies (evaluation, consulting, grant-writing).

🌍 International programs

• Over 35 master's programs exist worldwide (Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, Egypt, Greece, Italy, New Zealand, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, UK, US).
• Doctoral programs span Australia, Canada, Italy, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, and the US.
• Programs are nested within their cultural context and cater to local needs.
• Example: A master's program in Peru prepares students for government careers; a program in Egypt focuses on consulting and NGO work; Latin American programs emphasize community social psychology and work with community organizations, healthcare, and education.
• Practical consideration: If you want to work with a particular population, seek training in that region of the world.

📝 Applying to graduate programs

The excerpt offers eight strategies:

1. Ensure significant research experience; volunteer to join a research team if needed.
2. Prepare for the Graduate Record Exam (GRE); consider formal courses, tutoring, or retaking if scores are weak.
3. Build relationships with faculty and practitioners; you generally need three strong letters of recommendation.
4. Explore and apply to a range of programs (both master's and doctoral); ensure good fit with your interests and career goals.
5. If invited for a visit, attend—it benefits both you and faculty.
6. Talk with current students to get a student perspective on the program.
7. Assess the balance of theory, research, and practice, as well as core competencies taught.
8. Learn about the career paths of program graduates.

Who should write letters of recommendation?

• At least one faculty member with whom you have engaged in research.
• If you have multiple significant research experiences, all letters could be from research mentors.
• Otherwise, include a mentor/supervisor from an internship or volunteer experience, and an advisor/instructor/mentor who knows you well.
• Strongest letters come from people who have worked with you for at least six months and can speak to a range of your abilities, fit, career goals, skills, motivation, work ethic, and character.
• Ask: "Can you write a strong letter of recommendation for me?" If they hesitate, find someone else.

🛠️ Community Psychology competencies

🛠️ Practice competencies (18 core competencies)

The Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA) has identified 18 core practice competencies organized into five themes:

Theme	Competencies
Foundational principles	Ecological perspectives; empowerment; sociocultural and cross-cultural competence; community inclusion and partnership; ethical and reflective practice
Community program development and management	Program development, implementation, and management; prevention and health promotion
Community organization and capacity building	Community leadership and mentoring; small and large group processes; resource development; consultation and organizational development
Community social change	Collaboration and coalition development; community development; community organizing and advocacy; public policy analysis, development, and advocacy; community education, information dissemination, and building public awareness
Community research	Participatory community research; program evaluation

• Most careers tap into multiple competencies; some require advanced skills in particular areas.
• Not all community psychologists gain mastery in all competencies, but gain at least exposure and experience with some.

🛠️ Research competencies

SCRA has also identified research competencies:

• Five foundational competencies: research questions and leverage points; participatory community research; managing collaborations; developing community change models; program evaluation.
• Specific research competencies in three areas:
  • Research design (e.g., survey design, sampling, mixed methods).
  • Data analysis (e.g., descriptive quantitative analyses, basic qualitative methods, missing data and data reduction techniques).
  • Theories and perspectives (e.g., ecological theories, empowerment, policy change).

🛠️ Four general categories (Serrano-García et al., 2016)

Competencies fall into:

1. Knowledge: application, articulation, integration.
2. Research: methodology, data analysis, writing proposals and reports.
3. Cognition: identify, analyze, understand, and communicate injustice, values, social context.
4. Practice/profession: develop, implement, and evaluate interventions; promote social change; demonstrate multicultural competence.

Reflection questions: Which competencies are you most interested in? Which do you envision using in your desired career? Which graduate programs will help you develop your desired competencies?

🌱 Social activism and creating change

🌱 Why activism matters in Community Psychology

• Many pursue Community Psychology because of interest in social change.
• Community Psychology focuses on the interaction between individual and environment, understanding problems from an ecological perspective.
• Because of the field's values (diversity, social justice), community psychologists are interested in changing community and societal issues to better individuals' lives.

🌱 Examples of scholar-activists

• Balcazar and Suarez-Balcazar have developed community-based interventions targeting individual behaviors (skills, awareness, knowledge) and environmental factors (accessibility, resources, policies) affecting people with disabilities.
• They use the Concerns Report Method: a participatory methodology that includes focus groups to identify community concerns, survey development and administration, data analysis, and town hall meetings to discuss results and plan actions.
• Example applications: addressing displacement in Costa Rica; health concerns of immigrant Latino families in Chicago; contamination of a local river in Mexico; domestic violence services; new community centers and youth programming.

🌱 Influencing social policy

• Policy work applies psychological principles to benefit public interest.
• Community psychologists are well positioned to conduct policy-relevant research and influence social policy.
• Four key skills (from interviews with 79 psychologists):
  1. Building relationships with policymakers, staff, media, practitioners, and researchers.
  2. Research skills: conduct original research, evaluate evidence, synthesize literature.
  3. Oral and written communication skills.
  4. Strategic analysis skills.
• Ways to influence policy: serve on policy advisory groups, advocacy and lobbying, educate the public through media, share research and theory with key court cases.
• Key lesson: Be patient and persistent; social change takes time and involves many barriers and failures.
• Small steps: create and sign petitions, attend protests, contact local legislators, write policy briefs.

🌱 Liberatory approaches

• Langhout (2016) argues community psychologists need to use liberatory approaches to transform society and free oppressed peoples.
• Build on the work of feminist scientists and critical feminist social-community psychologists who focus on subjectivity, process, change, connectivity, desire, and difference.
• Build solidarity with people most affected by state-sanctioned violence and disrupt structures (whiteness, patriarchy, class privilege) that support violence.

🔮 Future directions for the field

🔮 Appreciation for differences and compassion

• Given increasing globalization and migration, appreciation for diversity (background, experiences, cultures) is important for problem-solving, innovation, creativity, and informed decision-making.
• Compassionate attitudes are essential to effectively help others who are suffering.
• Research opportunity: Investigate appreciation of diversity and compassion as outcomes (not just predictors); examine structural qualities that predict appreciation of differences; develop interventions that create compassionate communities.

🔮 Sustainability and environmental concerns

• Climate change and waste of natural resources are pressing global issues.
• Many view climate change as a human rights and social justice issue; it disproportionately impacts poor communities.
• Environmental consequences influence access to safe food and water, negatively affecting health (foodborne and waterborne diseases, respiratory disorders, malnutrition).
• Field opportunity: Address climate change along with environmental classism and racism to prevent further health and economic problems.

🔮 Disparities in opportunity

• In the US, the gap between rich and poor is at an all-time high.
• In 2016, median wealth of upper-income families was 7 times greater than middle-income families and 75 times greater than lower-income families.
• Racial differences in wealth: Latinx and African-American families have disproportionately less wealth than White families.
• These inequalities influence access to quality schooling, healthcare, and job opportunities.
• Field opportunity: Policy changes and increased political involvement are necessary; examine ways to remove structural obstacles to reduce disparities.

🔮 Aging and end of life

• Issues of aging are generally understudied in psychology.
• Field opportunity: Research and create interventions to enhance quality of life for the growing elderly population worldwide.
• Society values life and vitality; discussions of death and dying are taboo.
• Field opportunity: Help individuals, families, and communities better deal with and face death and dying; support loved ones as they grieve.

🚀 Next steps: engaging and growing the field

🚀 Engaging in the field

• Join SCRA and the SCRA listserve; get involved in leadership opportunities.
• SCRA27.org provides helpful information: interest groups, committees, councils, Executive Committee opportunities, lists of programs, teaching materials, policy statements, webinars, blogs, and other resources.
• Build networks within and across disciplines; collaborate with others.
• Engage in professional development: conferences, webinars, workshops, continuing education opportunities.
• Example: Regional student-run Eco-Community Psychology Conferences have been occurring for 40 years and are a great place to network.
• Explore the Community Tool Box: an online resource with guides to facilitate social action (assessing community needs and resources, developing models of change, strategic and action plans, developing interventions, evaluating initiatives, applying for grants).

🚀 Using the field to guide your work

• Research is an important component; check out the literature on topics of interest, read current research, explore what others have done before starting something new.
• Many empirically-based programs exist—don't re-invent the wheel without first learning what others have created and tested.
• Assess the extent to which existing theories, strategies, and programs have been applied to your area.
• Use resources: university libraries, Google Scholar, Research Gate, and other online tools.
• If you can't access articles, request them from authors via email.

🚀 Follow your passion

• Appreciate "small wins" and engage in self-care.
• Working systemically to promote health and well-being among underserved populations can have far-reaching effects at local, regional, state, national, and international levels.
• Be patient; don't try to do it all at once.
• Figure out where your talents lie and where you can make a difference; work with others to have a larger impact.

🚀 Growing the field

Strategies to grow the field:

1. Connect with local and national organizations to increase awareness of Community Psychology competencies and fit with their work.
2. Use technology and social media to increase visibility of good work: Twitter, blogs, LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, videos illustrating exemplary projects and public discourse on social issues.
3. Look for opportunities to introduce yourself as a community psychologist or someone with training in Community Psychology.
4. Have an "elevator speech": brief bullet points about the field and what you do. Community psychologists add distinctive value through combining science, understanding of systems, and an ecological approach to contribute to adaptive, collaborative team approaches to sustainable change.

🚀 Disseminating your work

• Disseminate through various outlets to yield greater visibility and impact.
• Be politically and socially active in your community; share your work across levels (locally, regionally, nationally).
• Submit articles and Op-Eds about your work to local newspapers, newsletters, websites, blogs, and other sources.
• Disseminating through social media keeps work current, relevant, and linked with those who find it most helpful.
• Communitypsychology.com is a website SCRA created to interact with the public and share important work; consider submitting research or practice work on topics including education, healthcare, children, environmental issues, prevention, criminal justice, public policy, substance use, violence, and housing.

🚀 Action checklist

Ways to get more involved:

• Take political action: organize or participate in a rally; contact local, state, and/or national legislators on important issues; start or sign a petition.
• Volunteer in your community: offer skills you have to promote a cause you care about.
• Use social media effectively: transition from personal to professional usage; write blogs and/or Op-Eds to share your perspective to a wide audience.
• Find a job that provides a forum for social action on issues you are passionate about.
• Use and share the Community Toolbox as a resource to guide social action.

🎯 Reflection questions

Consider the following to assess your educational and career path:

1. What would you like to do when you finish your education? How might Community Psychology be part of your career plans?
2. What skills would you like to use in your work?
3. With what populations and in what settings would you enjoy working?
4. Have you been involved with research? If so, do you like it?
5. How much do you see research or evaluation as part of your job description? How might you apply research or evaluation in a setting?
6. How much do you see program development and management as part of your role?

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

This excerpt provides a glossary of key terms used in community psychology, covering concepts from policy processes and power dynamics to research methods and social justice, which collectively support understanding of community organizing, partnerships, and coalition work.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Glossary structure: The excerpt is a definitional reference listing terms alphabetically, not a narrative argument.
• Core themes: Terms cluster around policy processes, types of power, prevention levels, research design, empowerment, coping strategies, and social justice concepts.
• Common confusion: Different "power" types (power over, power to, power from) describe distinct relationships, not synonyms.
• Prevention levels: Primary, secondary, and selective prevention target different stages—before onset, early intervention, and high-risk groups respectively.
• Why it matters: These definitions underpin the vocabulary needed to discuss community organizing, understand research methods, and analyze power and equity in coalitions.

🏛️ Policy and problem framing

🔄 Policymaking process

Policymaking process: A four step cyclical process that illustrates how a policy gains the attention of policymakers, is adopted, implemented, and revised.

• The process is cyclical, meaning policies are not static—they loop through attention, adoption, implementation, and revision.
• This framework helps organizers understand how issues move from concern to action.

🌊 Problem stream and political stream

Term	Definition	Focus
Problem stream	The range of social issues that may affect a given population	Which issues exist
Political stream	The level of public concern to actually devote time and resources to one of these topics and possible solutions	Which issues get attention and resources

• Don't confuse: Problem stream = what problems are out there; political stream = which problems get prioritized and funded.
• Example: Many social issues may exist (problem stream), but only those with sufficient public concern (political stream) receive policy attention.

⚡ Types and dynamics of power

💪 Three forms of power

The excerpt distinguishes three types of power that describe different relationships:

Power over: The ability to compel or dominate others, control resources, and enforce commands.

Power to: The ability of people to pursue personal and/or collective goals and to develop their own capacities.

Power from: The ability to resist coercion and unwanted commands/demands.

• Power over is hierarchical and coercive.
• Power to is about agency and capacity-building.
• Power from is about resistance and autonomy.
• Common confusion: These are not interchangeable—organizing may aim to shift from "power over" dynamics to "power to" and "power from" for marginalized groups.

🔄 Reclaiming of power

Reclaiming of power: The process of claiming and redefining identities; the process can include naming the places where one needs to take charge and act more powerfully, plan changes and take action that reconnect the person with their inherent power.

• This is an active process involving:
  • Naming where power is needed
  • Planning changes
  • Taking action to reconnect with inherent power
• Example: A community group identifies areas where members feel powerless, redefines their collective identity, and organizes actions to reclaim control over local decisions.

🛡️ Prevention levels and strategies

🛡️ Primary, secondary, and selective prevention

Type	Definition	Target
Primary prevention	Interventions designed to prevent the onset or future incidence of a specific problem	Before the problem occurs
Secondary prevention	Early intervention that decreases the prevalence	After onset but early stage
Selective prevention	Programming that targets people who are at high risk for the development of a disorder but do not show any indication of disorder	High-risk groups, no symptoms yet

• Primary = stop problems before they start (e.g., boosting skills, environmental change).
• Secondary = catch problems early to reduce spread or severity.
• Selective = focus resources on those most vulnerable, even before symptoms appear.
• Don't confuse: Selective prevention is still before disorder appears, unlike secondary prevention which addresses early cases.

🌱 Prevention vs promotion

Prevention: The focus on actions that stop problems before they happen by boosting individual skills as well by engaging in environmental change.

Promotion: Empowering individuals to increase control of their health through literacy and programming.

• Prevention is problem-focused (stop bad outcomes).
• Promotion is capacity-focused (build positive outcomes and control).
• Both can involve environmental and individual-level strategies.

🔬 Research and evaluation concepts

📊 Research design and methods

Research Design: A collection of decisions a researcher(s) makes tailored to what is being studied.

• Includes choices about data collection, participant selection, and analysis.
• Two broad method types are defined:

Method	Data type	Goal
Qualitative	Words; comprehensive descriptions of participants' experiences	Deep understanding of context and meaning
Quantitative	Numbers; standardized measures	Generalizable findings

🎲 Random assignment

Random assignment: A design decision that involves the random assignment of participants into either an experiment group or a control group.

• Used to ensure groups are comparable at the start.
• Helps isolate the effect of an intervention.
• Example: An organization testing a new program randomly assigns participants to receive the program or not, to fairly compare outcomes.

📏 Pre-test and post-test

Pre-test: A test designed to gauge participants' baseline scores.

Post-test: A test designed to gauge participants' scores post-intervention.

• Pre-test establishes starting point; post-test measures change.
• Together they help evaluate whether an intervention worked.

✅ Reliable and replicable

Reliable: The degree to which a study produces results that prove to be consistent, no matter who is conducting the research.

Replicable: The ability to replicate a study's findings.

• Reliability = consistency across researchers.
• Replicability = ability to reproduce results in new studies.
• Both are essential for trustworthy evidence in community organizing and coalition work.

🌍 Empowerment and social justice

🌟 Psychological and societal empowerment

Psychological empowerment: A process by which one first increases critical awareness and understanding of the power dynamics that occur at multiple levels in their lives. To address these power dynamics, one then develops skills for gaining control over affected aspects of their lives.

Societal empowerment: Empowerment occurring at the societal level; considers the equitable distribution of resources and access to power broadly across groups.

• Psychological empowerment is individual-level: awareness → skill-building → control.
• Societal empowerment is structural: equitable distribution of resources and power across groups.
• Don't confuse: Individual empowerment alone does not guarantee societal change; coalitions often work at both levels.

⚖️ Social justice

Social Justice: Involves the fair distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges that provide equal opportunities for education, health care, work, and housing.

• Focuses on fair distribution and equal opportunities across key life domains.
• Community organizing and coalitions often pursue social justice goals by addressing systemic inequities.

🚫 Structural violence

Structural violence: Systemic violence or oppression perpetrated by those who have power and influence in society toward those who are disadvantaged by society.

• Not individual acts, but systemic harm embedded in social structures.
• Example: Policies or institutions that systematically deny resources or opportunities to marginalized groups constitute structural violence.

🤝 Community and collaboration concepts

🏘️ Sense of community

Sense of community: An individual's perception of similarity to others, giving to others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable group.

• Includes:
  • Perceived similarity
  • Reciprocity (giving and receiving)
  • Belonging to a stable, dependable group
• This sense supports coalition-building and sustained partnerships.

🔄 Succession

Succession: Refers to the fact that communities are in a constant process of change, and this process causes changing requirements for adaptation.

• Communities are not static; they evolve.
• Organizers and coalitions must adapt to changing needs and contexts over time.

🌱 Small wins

Small wins: Progress that occurs when breaking down a goal into manageable parts.

• Strategy for maintaining momentum and morale in long-term organizing.
• Example: A coalition working toward policy change celebrates incremental victories (e.g., securing a meeting with a legislator) as small wins.

🌿 Sustainability

Sustainability: Focusing on the commitment to the long-term goal of a campaign by planning for adjustments, adaptations, collaboration, and unexpected barriers in the activism process.

• Requires planning for:
  • Adjustments and adaptations
  • Collaboration
  • Unexpected barriers
• Essential for coalitions and partnerships that aim for lasting change, not just short-term wins.

🧠 Coping and resilience

🛠️ Coping styles

The excerpt defines several coping strategies:

Problem-focused coping style: When the individuals respond with cognitive and behavioral efforts at managing or altering the problem causing distress.

Seeking-understanding coping style: When an individual responds by finding meaning and understanding, not seeking to put a positive interpretation on the problem, but to learn.

Support-seeking strategies: Strategies for coping with stress, which includes seeking advice or information, or direct assistance from others.

• Problem-focused = change the problem itself.
• Seeking-understanding = learn from the problem (not just reframe it positively).
• Support-seeking = get help from others.
• These strategies are relevant for individuals in coalitions facing stress or setbacks.

🌈 Resilience

Resilience: A dynamic process characterized by positive outcomes despite adversity or stress.

• Dynamic process, not a fixed trait.
• Involves achieving positive outcomes even when facing adversity.
• Community organizing often aims to build resilience at individual and community levels.

🔄 Shift-and-Persist

Shift-and-Persist: A strategy for adapting to stress that requires individuals to first shift their views of the problem and themselves within the context of the problem/stressors.

• Two-step strategy:
  1. Shift views of the problem and self
  2. Persist (implied: continue despite adversity)
• Helps individuals adapt to chronic stressors, relevant for long-term organizing work.

🧩 Additional key terms

🎯 Practice settings and praxis

Practice settings: Environments that allow for the application of Community Psychology practice principles in an applied environment.

Praxis: A repetitive process of turning a theory, lesson, or skill into an actualized action.

• Practice settings = where theory meets real-world application.
• Praxis = the cycle of theory → action → reflection → revised action.
• Both are central to community organizing and coalition work, which require ongoing learning and adaptation.

🏛️ Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA)

Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA): SCRA is the official organization of Community Psychology in the United States, yet it also supports global connections and goals, with about 20% of its membership international.

• The professional home for community psychologists.
• U.S.-based but with significant international membership (~20%).
• Relevant for networking, professional development, and staying current in the field.

🎓 Practicum/Fieldwork/Internship Experience

Practicum/Fieldwork/Internship Experience: A key component of undergraduate and graduate Community Psychology programs that involves supervised, hands-on learning through work in a community setting that is also helpful to that setting.

• Combines learning with service.
• Supervised and hands-on.
• Benefits both the learner and the community setting.
• Example: A student works with a local coalition on a health campaign, gaining skills while contributing to the coalition's goals.

🌐 Stakeholders

Stakeholders: Those who have something to gain or lose from a study.

• In community organizing and research, stakeholders include community members, partner organizations, funders, and policymakers.
• Identifying and engaging stakeholders is essential for ethical practice and effective coalitions.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Behavioral community approaches use reinforcement, punishment, and shaping procedures to change behavior patterns at individual and community levels, emphasizing systematic application of consequences to increase desired behaviors and decrease problematic ones.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Positive reinforcement: when something rewarding happens after a behavior begins, increasing the likelihood of that behavior recurring.
• Punishment: a consequence that decreases the rate or likelihood of a behavior in the future.
• Shaping of behavior: a complex set of procedures that changes the topography (sequence) of behaviors over time.
• Common confusion: reinforcement vs. punishment—reinforcement increases behavior frequency; punishment decreases it; both involve consequences, but the direction of change differs.

🎯 Core behavioral mechanisms

🎁 Positive Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement: When something rewarding happens after the onset of a behavior.

• The key is timing: the reward follows the behavior.
• This increases the chance the behavior will happen again.
• Example: An organization rewards volunteers with recognition after they complete tasks → volunteers are more likely to continue volunteering.
• Don't confuse: "positive" does not mean "good" in a moral sense; it means adding something (a reward) to the situation.

⛔ Punishment

Punishment: A consequence associated with a behavior or group of behaviors that decreases the rate or likelihood of the behavior in the future.

• The defining feature is that the behavior becomes less frequent afterward.
• The consequence can be adding something unpleasant or removing something pleasant.
• Example: A community program imposes fines for littering → littering decreases.
• Don't confuse with reinforcement: punishment reduces behavior; reinforcement increases it.

🔧 Changing behavior over time

🛠️ Shaping of behavior

Shaping of behavior: A complex set of procedures that results in a change in topography, or the sequence, of behaviors.

• "Topography" refers to the sequence or form of behaviors, not just whether a single behavior occurs.
• Shaping involves gradually modifying behavior through successive steps.
• This is more complex than simple reinforcement or punishment because it targets the structure of behavior patterns.
• Example: A community health program gradually teaches participants to adopt a multi-step healthy routine by reinforcing each small step in the sequence.

🔍 Distinguishing key concepts

Concept	What it does	Direction of change
Positive Reinforcement	Adds a reward after behavior	Increases behavior
Punishment	Adds a consequence after behavior	Decreases behavior
Shaping	Modifies the sequence/form of behaviors	Changes topography

🧩 How to tell them apart

• Reinforcement vs. punishment: Ask "Does the behavior happen more or less often afterward?" More → reinforcement; less → punishment.
• Simple consequence vs. shaping: Ask "Are we changing one behavior's frequency, or are we changing a whole sequence?" Single behavior → reinforcement/punishment; sequence → shaping.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The policymaking process is a cyclical, multi-stream system in which public concern, political attention, and resource allocation determine which social issues are addressed through laws, regulations, and funding priorities.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Policymaking as a cycle: a four-step process showing how a policy gains attention, is adopted, implemented, and revised.
• Three streams shape policy: the problem stream (range of social issues), the political stream (public concern and resource allocation), and possible solutions.
• Public policy defined: laws, regulations, actions, and funding priorities issued by government to address social issues at local, state, and national levels.
• Common confusion: don't confuse the problem stream (the range of issues that exist) with the political stream (the level of concern and willingness to act on those issues).
• Why it matters: understanding these streams and the cyclical process helps explain why some issues receive attention and resources while others do not.

🔄 The policymaking cycle

🔄 Four-step cyclical process

Policymaking process: A four step cyclical process that illustrates how a policy gains the attention of policymakers, is adopted, implemented, and revised.

• The process is cyclical, meaning it repeats and policies can be revisited.
• Four stages:
  1. Gaining attention: an issue enters the awareness of policymakers.
  2. Adoption: policymakers formally decide to address the issue.
  3. Implementation: the policy is put into practice.
  4. Revision: the policy is evaluated and adjusted based on outcomes.
• Example: An organization identifies a community health problem → policymakers adopt a funding program → the program is rolled out → after evaluation, the program is revised to improve effectiveness.

🔁 Why cyclical matters

• Policies are not static; they evolve through feedback and revision.
• The cyclical nature allows for learning and adaptation over time.
• Don't confuse: a single policy decision is not the end—implementation and revision are integral parts of the process.

🌊 Three streams that shape policy

🌊 Problem stream

Problem stream: The range of social issues that may affect a given population.

• This stream represents the universe of potential issues that exist in society.
• Not all problems in this stream receive attention or resources.
• Example: A population may face housing insecurity, mental health challenges, and environmental hazards—all are in the problem stream, but only some may be prioritized.

🗳️ Political stream

Political stream: The level of public concern to actually devote time and resources to one of these topics and possible solutions.

• This stream determines which problems get acted upon.
• It reflects public concern, political will, and the availability of resources.
• The political stream filters the problem stream: only issues with sufficient public concern and political support move forward.
• Example: Two issues exist in the problem stream, but only one has strong public advocacy and media attention → that issue enters the political stream and receives resources.

🔧 Solutions

• The excerpt mentions "possible solutions" as part of the policymaking context.
• Solutions are considered alongside the problem and political streams.
• The interplay: a problem exists, public concern rises, and feasible solutions are proposed → policy action becomes possible.

🔍 How to distinguish the streams

Stream	What it represents	Key question
Problem stream	Range of social issues affecting a population	What problems exist?
Political stream	Level of public concern and resource commitment	Which problems will we act on?
Solutions	Possible interventions or actions	How can we address the problem?

• Common confusion: the problem stream is about what issues are present, while the political stream is about what issues receive attention and resources.
• A problem can exist for years in the problem stream without entering the political stream if public concern or political will is lacking.

📜 Public policy defined

📜 What public policy is

Public policy: The laws, regulations, course of action, and funding priorities issued by the government to address a social issue at the local, state, and national level.

• Public policy is the formal output of the policymaking process.
• It includes:
  • Laws: legally binding rules.
  • Regulations: detailed rules for implementing laws.
  • Course of action: strategic plans or initiatives.
  • Funding priorities: allocation of resources to specific issues.
• Public policy operates at multiple levels: local, state, and national.

🎯 Purpose of public policy

• Public policy is designed to address social issues.
• It translates political and public concern into concrete action.
• Example: A government identifies rising homelessness (problem stream), public concern grows (political stream), and the government issues funding priorities and regulations to support housing programs (public policy).

🔗 Link to the policymaking process

• Public policy is the result of the adoption stage in the policymaking cycle.
• Once adopted, it moves into implementation and later revision.
• Don't confuse: public policy is not just "what the government does"—it is the specific laws, regulations, and funding decisions that emerge from the cyclical policymaking process.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

This excerpt is a glossary of terms from a community psychology textbook and does not present a substantive argument or conclusion about dissemination and implementation.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The excerpt contains only definitions of terms used throughout the textbook, not content specific to Chapter 18.
• Terms span multiple community psychology topics: empowerment, research methods, prevention, coping, social justice, and activism.
• No mechanisms, processes, or frameworks for dissemination and implementation are described.
• The excerpt ends mid-definition ("systems of domination"), indicating it is incomplete.

📚 Nature of the excerpt

📚 What this excerpt contains

• This is a glossary section from a community psychology textbook edited by Leonard A. Jason and colleagues.
• It provides alphabetically ordered definitions of technical terms.
• The chapter title "Dissemination and Implementation" does not match the content provided.

⚠️ What is missing

• No discussion of how interventions or research findings are disseminated to communities.
• No frameworks for implementing community psychology programs.
• No strategies for translating research into practice.
• The excerpt appears to be from a different section of the book (likely an appendix or end-of-chapter glossary).

🔑 Sample definitions from the excerpt

🔑 Empowerment concepts

Psychological empowerment: A process by which one first increases critical awareness and understanding of the power dynamics that occur at multiple levels in their lives. To address these power dynamics, one then develops skills for gaining control over affected aspects of their lives.

Societal empowerment: Empowerment occurring at the societal level; considers the equitable distribution of resources and access to power broadly across groups.

• These definitions distinguish individual-level from societal-level empowerment.
• Both involve awareness of power dynamics and taking action to address them.

🔬 Research and prevention terms

Term	Definition focus
Qualitative	Methods collecting words that provide comprehensive descriptions of participants' experiences
Quantitative	Methods collecting numbers using standardized measures to produce generalizable findings
Secondary prevention	Early intervention that decreases the prevalence
Selective prevention	Programming targeting people at high risk who do not yet show disorder

🛡️ Protective and risk factors

Protective factors: Variables that are related to a decreased risk for developing a disease or a social problem.

Risk factors: Variables that are related to an increased risk for developing a disease or problem.

• These are complementary concepts used in prevention science.
• Don't confuse: protective factors reduce risk; risk factors increase it.

🤝 Community and social concepts

Sense of community: An individual's perception of similarity to others, giving to others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable group.

Social Justice: Involves the fair distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges that provide equal opportunities for education, health care, work, and housing.

• These definitions emphasize belonging, reciprocity, and equitable resource distribution.

📖 Historical and organizational references

📖 Foundational event

Swampscott Conference: The 1965 inaugural conference in Swampscott, Massachusetts that led to the creation of the field of Community Psychology.

• This marks the formal beginning of community psychology as a distinct discipline.

🌐 Professional organization

Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA): SCRA is the official organization of Community Psychology in the United States, yet it also supports global connections and goals, with about 20% of its membership international.

• The primary professional body for community psychologists.
• Has both U.S. and international reach.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

This excerpt is a glossary of community psychology terms defining concepts from resilience and prevention strategies to empowerment, social justice, and activism, providing foundational vocabulary for understanding community-level interventions and research ethics.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Prevention levels: secondary prevention reduces prevalence through early intervention; selective prevention targets high-risk individuals before disorder appears.
• Empowerment and change: second-order change creates structural transformation; societal empowerment focuses on equitable resource distribution across groups.
• Coping and adaptation: strategies include seeking-understanding (learning from problems) and shift-and-persist (reframing stressors); self-efficacy is belief in one's ability to achieve goals.
• Common confusion: resilience vs. strength-based approach—resilience is positive outcomes despite adversity; strength-based focuses on building competencies rather than fixing deficits.
• Foundational concepts: sense of community, social justice, respect for diversity, and structural violence shape how community psychologists understand and address systemic issues.

🛡️ Resilience and strength frameworks

🛡️ Resilience

Resilience: A dynamic process characterized by positive outcomes despite adversity or stress.

• Emphasizes process, not a fixed trait.
• The key is achieving positive outcomes in the face of challenges, not avoiding them.
• Example: A community recovering and thriving after a natural disaster demonstrates resilience.

💪 Strength-based approach

Strength-based approach: Focuses on building competencies and skills, rather than fixing deficits.

• Shifts focus from "what's wrong" to "what can be developed."
• Don't confuse with resilience: resilience describes outcomes under adversity; strength-based describes a method of intervention that emphasizes capacities.

🎯 Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy: An internal belief in one's innate ability to achieve a desired goal.

• An individual-level psychological resource.
• Supports coping and goal achievement by fostering confidence in one's capabilities.

🔄 Prevention and intervention strategies

🩺 Secondary prevention

Secondary prevention: Early intervention that decreases the prevalence.

• Targets problems early to reduce how widespread they become.
• Acts after risk factors appear but before full disorder develops.

🎯 Selective prevention

Selective prevention: Programming that targets people who are at high risk for the development of a disorder but do not show any indication of disorder.

• Focuses on high-risk groups specifically.
• Individuals have not yet shown symptoms; intervention is proactive.
• Example: An organization offers stress-management workshops to workers in high-stress occupations before burnout symptoms appear.

🔁 Second-order change

Second-order change: Involves initiating more structural, long-term, and sustainable transformational changes.

• Goes beyond surface adjustments to alter underlying systems.
• Emphasizes sustainability and transformation, not quick fixes.
• Don't confuse with first-order change (not defined here, but implied to be more superficial or short-term).

🧠 Coping and adaptation strategies

🔍 Seeking-understanding coping style

Seeking-understanding coping style: When an individual responds by finding meaning and understanding, not seeking to put a positive interpretation on the problem, but to learn.

• Focuses on learning and comprehension, not reframing as positive.
• The goal is insight, not optimism.
• Example: After a setback, a person analyzes what went wrong to understand the causes, rather than simply telling themselves "it's for the best."

🔄 Shift-and-Persist

Shift-and-Persist: A strategy for adapting to stress that requires individuals to first shift their views of the problem and themselves within the context of the problem/stressors.

• Two-step process: first shift perspective, then persist through challenges.
• Combines cognitive reframing with sustained effort.

🤝 Support-seeking strategies

Support-seeking strategies: Strategies for coping with stress, which includes seeking advice or information, or direct assistance from others.

• Involves reaching out to others for help.
• Can be informational (advice) or instrumental (direct assistance).

🏆 Small wins

Small wins: Progress that occurs when breaking down a goal into manageable parts.

• Makes large goals achievable by focusing on incremental steps.
• Builds momentum and reduces overwhelm.

⚖️ Social justice and equity concepts

⚖️ Social Justice

Social Justice: Involves the fair distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges that provide equal opportunities for education, health care, work, and housing.

• Emphasizes fair distribution and equal opportunities across key life domains.
• Not just equality of outcome, but equitable access to resources.

🌍 Respect for diversity

Respect for diversity: Acknowledgment, acceptance, and respect for the full range of human characteristics in their social, historical, and cultural contexts.

• Goes beyond tolerance to active acknowledgment and respect.
• Considers characteristics within their broader contexts (social, historical, cultural).

💥 Structural violence

Structural violence: Systemic violence or oppression perpetrated by those who have power and influence in society toward those who are disadvantaged by society.

• Violence embedded in systems, not just individual acts.
• Perpetrated by those with power against disadvantaged groups.
• Example: Policies that systematically deny housing or healthcare to certain populations constitute structural violence.

🏛️ Systems of domination

Systems of domination: A "social order or pattern that has attained [text cuts off]

• Refers to entrenched social patterns that maintain power imbalances.
• (Definition incomplete in excerpt.)

🤝 Community and empowerment

🏘️ Sense of community

Sense of community: An individual's perception of similarity to others, giving to others what one expects from them, and the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable group.

• Three components: perceived similarity, reciprocity (give what you expect), and belonging to a stable group.
• A psychological experience of connection and mutual support.

💪 Societal empowerment

Societal empowerment: Empowerment occurring at the societal level; considers the equitable distribution of resources and access to power broadly across groups.

• Operates at the societal level, not just individual or organizational.
• Focuses on equitable distribution of resources and power access.
• Don't confuse with individual empowerment (not defined here, but implied to be at a different level of analysis).

📦 Resource provision

Resource provision: Ensuring a community is provided with a resource it is lacking.

• Direct provision of missing resources to a community.
• Addresses gaps in what a community has access to.

🛡️ Rights-based strategies

Rights-based strategies: Addressing the rights of a population, such as legal, political, and social justice.

• Focuses on securing and protecting rights (legal, political, social).
• Complements resource provision by addressing systemic entitlements.

🔬 Research ethics and methods

🛡️ Respect for Persons

Respect for Persons: A research ethics principle that states children, prisoners, and pregnant individuals are considered vulnerable populations, and they require special protections when involved in research.

• Identifies specific vulnerable populations: children, prisoners, pregnant individuals.
• Requires special protections in research contexts.
• Reflects ethical obligation to protect those with reduced autonomy or increased risk.

🤝 Stakeholders

Stakeholders: Those who have something to gain or lose from a study.

• Includes anyone affected by research outcomes.
• Important for ethical planning and community engagement.

🌐 Social network models

Social network models: A method for identifying how relationships may influence attitudes and behaviors.

• Analyzes how social connections shape individual outcomes.
• Useful for understanding influence pathways in communities.

🧪 Behavioral and environmental concepts

🎯 Shaping of behavior

Shaping of behavior: A complex set of procedures that results in a change in topography, or the sequence, of behaviors.

• Changes the form or sequence of behaviors through systematic procedures.
• A behavioral intervention technique.

🎛️ Stimulus control

Stimulus control: The process where the rules (antecedents) in an environment become associated with consequences, and then make a behavior or group of behaviors more or less likely to happen in the future.

• Environmental cues (antecedents) become linked to consequences.
• These associations then influence future behavior likelihood.
• Example: A workplace policy (antecedent) consistently followed by rewards makes compliance more likely in the future.

🌦️ Social Climate theory

Social Climate theory: Understand how people adapt to their social contexts, how they survive traumatizing contexts, and how contexts adapt to persons within that context; addressing the power and fragility of social settings.

• Bidirectional: people adapt to contexts and contexts adapt to people.
• Examines both survival in traumatizing settings and the dynamics of social environments.
• Highlights both power and fragility of settings.

🔄 Succession

Succession: Refers to the fact that communities are in a constant process of change, and this process causes changing requirements for adaptation.

• Communities are always changing, not static.
• Change creates new adaptation demands over time.

🏛️ Organizational and historical context

🏛️ Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA)

Society for Community Research and Action (SCRA): SCRA is the official organization of Community Psychology in the United States, yet it also supports global connections and goals, with about 20% of its membership international.

• Official U.S. organization for community psychology.
• Has significant international membership (~20%).
• Supports both national and global goals.

📅 Swampscott Conference

Swampscott Conference: The 1965 inaugural conference in Swampscott, Massachusetts that led to the creation of the field of Community Psychology.

• Founding event of the field in 1965.
• Held in Swampscott, Massachusetts.

🧘 Identity and personal characteristics

🧬 Sex

Sex: Biological descriptor involving chromosomes and internal/external reproductive organs.

• Refers to biological characteristics.
• Includes chromosomes and reproductive anatomy.

💖 Sexual orientation

Sexual orientation: A person's emotional, romantic, erotic, and spiritual attractions toward another in relation to their own sex or gender.

• Encompasses emotional, romantic, erotic, and spiritual dimensions.
• Defined in relation to one's own sex or gender.

💰 Social class

Social class: Social construct based on a person's income or material wealth, educational status, and/or occupational status.

• A social construct, not purely objective.
• Three components: income/wealth, education, occupation.

🙏 Spirituality

Spirituality: Focuses on an individual's relationship with a higher power and a quest for meaning.

• Two elements: relationship with a higher power and search for meaning.
• Individual-level experience.

🔥 Activism concepts

🧘 Self-purification

Self-purification: An examination of one's own true motivations, flaws, virtues, and willingness to sacrifice when engaging in activism.

• Internal reflection before activism.
• Examines motivations, character, and commitment to sacrifice.
• Ensures authentic and sustainable engagement.

🌱 Sustainability (activism context)

Sustainability: Focusing on the commitment to the long-term goal of a campaign by planning for adjustments, adaptations, collaboration, and unexpected barriers in the activism process.

• Long-term commitment to campaign goals.
• Requires planning for flexibility, collaboration, and obstacles.
• Ensures activism efforts endure beyond initial momentum.

📊 Risk and stress concepts

⚠️ Risk factors

Risk factors: Variables that are related to an increased risk for developing a disease or problem.

• Variables associated with higher likelihood of negative outcomes.
• Used to identify who may need prevention or intervention.

😰 Stress

Stress: The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

• A process, not just an event or feeling.
• Involves both perception (appraisal) and response.
• Triggered by events appraised as threatening or challenging.