Music in World Cultures

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Music worldwide can be understood by breaking it into six sonic elements—Timbre, Dynamics, Pitch, Melody & Harmony, Time & Form, and Texture—which provide a vocabulary for describing how any musical tradition works.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Six core elements: Timbre (how a sound sounds), Dynamics (loudness/softness), Pitch (frequency/highness/lowness), Melody & Harmony (tune and how layers sound together), Time & Form (temporal organization), and Texture (number and roles of layers).
• Timbre is subjective but descriptive: it distinguishes sounds without judgment (e.g., nasal vs. round, vibrato vs. straight tone) and helps identify similarities and differences between instruments or voices.
• Common confusion—harmony is culturally dependent: what sounds "in tune" or "out of tune" depends on cultural context; consonance (relaxed) and dissonance (tense) are perceptions, not universal truths.
• Meter types: free meter has no regular beat; fixed meter has repeatable patterns (duple or triple); finding the pulse is the first step.
• Texture types: monophonic (single melody), homophonic (melody + accompaniment), polyphonic (multiple independent melodies), heterophonic (simultaneous variations of the same melody).

🎨 Timbre: How a Sound Sounds

🎨 What timbre is

Timbre – the way a sound sounds to distinguish one sound from another.

• Synonyms: "tone color," "sound quality," "character of sound."
• Not a judgment, but a description to identify similarities and differences.
• Highly subjective; helps answer "what makes this sound different from that sound?"

🎻 Distinguishing similar instruments

• Example: guitar vs. 'ukulele—both are plucked strings, but describing how they sound similar and different helps distinguish them sonically.
• When unrelated instruments play the same melody (e.g., flute, mouth organ, ensemble in "Etenraku"), timbre is what lets you tell them apart.

🎤 Timbral descriptors

Common ways to describe timbre:

Descriptor	Meaning
Vibrato	Pitch fluctuation added to a sustained note for richer sound
Straight tone	Lack of pitch fluctuation on a sustained note
Nasal	Closed-off timbre sounding like it comes from the nasal cavity
Round	Open timbre with full resonance

• Other descriptors: rough/smooth, falsetto/chest voice, airy/full.
• Example: Chinese jingju is known for nasal qualities; a mariachi singer may use strong vibrato on sustained notes.

🚫 Don't confuse with volume

• Timbre is how something sounds, not how loud it is.
• Two instruments can be equally loud but have completely different timbres.

📊 Dynamics, Pitch, and Related Concepts

📊 Dynamics: relative loudness

Dynamics – relative loudness/softness of sound; volume.

• The key is pinpointing which sounds are louder or softer than others.
• Example: in "Get Up, Stand Up," when Bob Marley begins singing, the instruments become less audible because his voice is amplified louder; background singers are quieter than Marley.
• Avoid Italian/French/German terms (crescendo, forte, etc.); plain language ("increase in volume from quiet to louder") is just as effective.

🎵 Pitch: frequency of sound

Pitch – frequency of a sound; highness or lowness of a sound.

• Synonyms: tone, note.
• Pitches have measurable frequencies (in hertz), though this measurement is culturally derived and not universal.
• "Pitch" is both a specific term and a grouping of related concepts.

🎵 Pitch-related concepts

Concept	Definition
Fundamental	The "base note" the melody is based on (synonym: tonic)
Interval	Distance between two pitches
Range	Distance between highest and lowest pitch in a melody
Octave	Doubling of a frequency but the same pitch set
Scale/Mode	Culturally prescribed arrangements of intervals and pitches

• Example: in "I'll Fly Away," a fundamental tone is continuously played on the lower string while the melody moves on a higher string; the pitch range is narrow (4–6 notes in medium to low range).

🎶 Melody & Harmony

🎶 Melody: the tune

Melody – a sequence of pitches perceived as a unit (synonym: tune).

• The main line of interest; what stays in your head after hearing a piece.
• In pop music, the melody is what gets stuck, not the background sounds or rhythms.

🎶 Melodic motion

Type	Description
Conjunct motion	Stepwise (small intervals) melodic motion
Disjunct motion	Melodic motion by leaps (large intervals)

• Example: "Aloha Oe" uses stepwise motion—few jumps even though the range is large.

🎶 Ornaments and phrases

Ornaments – elaborations on the set melody.

Phrase – sections of the melody and music, often a "breath's worth" of music.

• Example: Indian music uses various types of ornamentation; each example includes a non-ornamented section followed by specific ornamentations.

🎶 Harmony: how layers sound together

Harmony – perception of the way musical layers sound together.

• Always culturally and time-based; subjective like timbre.

Type	Description
Consonant harmony (consonance)	Relaxed, open sounding harmony
Dissonant harmony (dissonance)	Tense, closed sounding harmony

• Example: "Jarabi" uses consonant harmony, often referred to as "happy" sounding or "in tune" (culturally dependent).
• Example: "Song of the Spring Cicada" uses intentionally narrow intervals to create dissonant sound; may seem "out of tune," but this is a culturally-based assumption.

🚫 Don't confuse "out of tune" with dissonance

• What sounds "in tune" or "out of tune" depends on cultural context.
• Dissonance is not a mistake; it can be intentional and culturally valued.

⏱️ Time & Form: Temporal Organization

⏱️ Core time concepts

Concept	Definition
Pulse	The pulsation of music, "the beat"
Rhythm	A series of pulsations understood as a unit
Tempo	The rate of speed of the music
Meter	Temporal description of the organization of the pulse
Accent	Emphasis on a pulse
Syncopation	Destabilizing beat created with accents

• Time is the sequential framework of how music is temporally organized.
• Form is an understanding of sections of music, often noticed through changes in time.

⏱️ Free meter

• No discernible and repeatable pattern in the pulse.
• Listener cannot find a regular beat.
• Example: "Honshirabe" lacks a formal pulse; tempo is slow and rhythms are independent thoughts, not units.

⏱️ Fixed meter: duple and triple

Fixed meter has a clearly found and repeatable pattern in the pulse. Most music follows this form.

Meter type	Organization	Example
Duple meter	Divisions of 2, alternating strong and weak beats	"Didn't It Rain"—strong duple meter with accents on beats 2 and 4
Triple meter	Divisions of 3, one strong beat (beat 1) + two weaker (beats 2 & 3)	"El Son de la Negra"—strong triple meter, commonly heard in waltzes ("oom pah pah")

• To determine meter: first find the pulse (tap your foot).
• Complex meters combine duple and triple but are rare in this course.

🧵 Texture: Layers of Sound

🧵 What texture is

Texture refers to the number of parts and the roles the parts play.

• Most music has layers of different sounds.
• Example: in a pop song, the main voice stands out from background sounds—you are hearing multiple layers (texture).

🧵 Monophonic texture

Monophonic texture includes just a single melody line or a group performing the same line in octaves.

• Example: "Ch'aska: Song for the Stars"—single layer of flute, then singing, then flute again.
• No accompaniment or harmony; one melodic line only.

🧵 Homophonic texture

Homophonic texture includes two or more layers, typically with one line sounding the melody.

• Think pop music: lead singer's voice is most important; backing vocals, instruments, drums are secondary accompaniment.
• The second layer can be complex but remains secondary to the main voice.
• Example: "Little Birdie"—singers in harmony with banjo and guitar; vocal line is main melody, instruments are secondary.

🧵 Polyphonic texture

Polyphonic texture includes multiple lines using contrary motion with interwoven layers, resulting in two or more simultaneous independent melodies.

• Commonly found in choir and band compositions.
• Multiple melody lines build together to create a bigger picture; no single dominant melody throughout.
• Example: "Shemokmedura"—solo parts with harmonic layers added, contrasting motion, yodels, complex layering with more singers.

🧵 Heterophonic texture

Heterophonic texture includes at least two performers playing simultaneous variations of the same melody.

• Each performer embellishes the melody on their own but plays in unison for the majority.
• The melodic line moves together in time and shape without contrasting motion.
• Example: "Etenraku"—solo flute establishes melody; mouth organs play note cluster; ensemble joins, each with their own embellishments but all playing the same melody.

🚫 Don't confuse polyphonic and heterophonic

• Polyphonic: multiple independent melodies with contrasting motion.
• Heterophonic: multiple variations of the same melody, moving together in time and shape.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The Hornbostel-Sachs system classifies instruments worldwide by identifying what vibrates to create sound, offering a more comprehensive framework than the traditional symphony orchestra model.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why a new system was needed: the symphony orchestra model (strings, woodwinds, brass, percussion) cannot fully classify the diversity of instruments found throughout the world.
• Core principle of Hornbostel-Sachs: instruments are classified by what vibrates to create sound, since all sound is created by vibration.
• Five main categories: membranophones (drums), idiophones (body vibrates), chordophones (strings), aerophones (air vibrates), and electrophones (electronic).
• Common confusion: percussion instruments are split into two categories—membranophones (membrane vibrates) vs. idiophones (whole body vibrates)—not lumped together as in the orchestra model.
• Historical context: developed by ethnomusicologists Erich Moritz von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs in 1914 and still in use today.

🎻 Traditional orchestra classification

🎻 The four families

The symphony orchestra model divides instruments into:

• Strings: played with a bow or plucked (violins, cellos)
• Woodwinds: traditionally made from wood where air is blown over a sharp edge (oboes, flutes)
• Brass: metal instruments played with vibrating lips (trombones, trumpets)
• Percussion: instruments where something is struck to create sound (drums, marimbas)

🌍 Limitations of the orchestra model

• This model provides a starting point but cannot classify the full diversity of instruments found throughout the world.
• It cannot even fully classify all instruments within Western countries alone.
• The Hornbostel-Sachs system shares some similarities but also has key points of divergence.

🥁 Membranophones and idiophones

🥁 Membranophones (drums)

Membranophones: instruments where a membrane, usually a drumhead, vibrates to create sound.

• The membranes are typically made of animal skins or synthetic materials stretched over the base of the drum.
• Drums can be found in all parts of the world.
• They can be struck in a variety of fashions: with bare hands, mallets, or sticks.
• Example: Djembe (irregular hourglass-shaped drum from Western Africa played with hands); Dhol (double-headed southwest Asian drum played with sticks).

🔔 Idiophones (body vibrates)

Idiophones: instruments where the instrument's body itself vibrates to create sound.

• Unlike membranophones (where only a membrane vibrates), the entire body of an idiophone vibrates.
• Example: orchestral cymbals that vibrate when struck against one another, or a cymbal in a drum set that vibrates when hit with a drumstick.

🎵 Idiophone subcategories

Idiophones can be classified by how they are played:

Method	Description	Example
Struck against one another	Two parts of the instrument hit each other	Cymbals
Struck by non-vibrating object	Hit with a mallet or stick	Gongs
Shaken	Movement creates sound	Rattles
Scraped	A stick runs along notches or ridges	Guiro
Plucked	Fingers pluck vibrating parts	Mbira (thumb piano of the Shona people of Zimbabwe)
Rubbed	Friction creates vibration	Rubbing fingers around the rim of a glass

🚫 Don't confuse membranophones and idiophones

• Both are percussion instruments (struck to create sound).
• Membranophones: only the membrane (drumhead) vibrates.
• Idiophones: the whole body of the instrument vibrates.
• The symphony orchestra lumps both under "percussion," but Hornbostel-Sachs separates them based on what vibrates.

🎸 Chordophones and aerophones

🎸 Chordophones (string instruments)

Chordophones: instruments that generate sound through the vibration of a string, whether it is plucked, bowed, or struck.

• This classification includes many keyboard instruments, such as a piano where a hammer strikes a string inside the body to create sound.
• Example: Erhu (two-string bowed fiddle from China); Autoharp (a zither where strings are stretched across a flat body, sometimes used in American folk and country music).

🎺 Aerophones (air vibrates)

Aerophones: any instrument where sound is primarily generated by vibrating air.

• Included in this category are both woodwind and brass instruments, as well as other reed instruments and flutes.
• Example: Harmonium (common in many Indian genres; consists of a bellows pumped with one hand while the other hand plays a keyboard; sound is generated by air sent over reeds); Andean Panpipes/Siku (pipes of different lengths and pitches fixed together, played by blowing air across the top of each pipe; traced back thousands of years in the Andes mountain range along the western side of South America).

🔌 Electrophones

🔌 What electrophones are

Electrophones: instruments where sound is created through electric means.

• This category was not included in the originally devised Hornbostel-Sachs system.
• Examples include synthesizers, electric organs, and theremins.
• Frequently, it is a speaker connected to the instrument that vibrates to create sound.

🎹 Theremin example

• An electronic instrument where there is no physical contact between the performer and the instrument itself.
• The performer's hands are placed near two antennas: one dedicated to pitch, the other to volume.
• Commonly used for movie scores, especially for older science fiction films.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Ozark music represents a regional American identity through ballads and instruments transplanted from Appalachia, the British Isles, and West Africa, distinguished by its use of specific local details in storytelling.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Regional identity marker: Music in the Ozarks (stretching from St. Louis, Missouri to Northwest Arkansas) reflects ancestry from Appalachia and the British Isles while developing local characteristics.
• Ballad distinction: Ozark/American ballads differ from Irish/Scottish ballads by including specific details (time, place, people) rather than vague references, making them tied to particular locations.
• Common confusion: Ozark music may sound like "bluegrass" or "Appalachian folk tunes" sonically, but lyrical content and regional specificity distinguish it.
• Three main instruments: fiddle (from Irish/Scottish culture), banjo (from West African akonting), and mountain dulcimer (a wholly American-made instrument).
• Ballad form structure: Traditional ballads follow strict ABAB couplet form with rhymes on the second and fourth lines, using paired lines with consistent meter.

🎵 Music as regional identity

🗺️ The Ozark region

• The Ozarks stretch from St. Louis, Missouri, south and west to Mountain View, Arkansas, and Northwest Arkansas.
• The region is home to music transplanted from Appalachia and the British Isles, but with local characteristics.
• Music serves as more than sounds—it is a marker of identity, similar to hip hop in Los Angeles, mariachi in San Antonio, or Cajun music in New Orleans.

🔍 Sonic similarity vs lyrical distinction

• To some listeners, Ozark music may sound indistinguishable from "bluegrass" or "Appalachian folk tunes."
• Don't confuse: Sonic similarity does not mean the traditions are identical—lyrical elements distinguish American balladry from Irish/Scottish balladry, and Ozark-specific ballads distinguish themselves even further.
• The excerpt emphasizes that the music "is specific to the region and pulls on its ancestry from other traditions."

📖 Ballad traditions

📖 What a ballad is

Ballad: A narrative song (not simply a slow love song as in modern popular music).

• Traditional ballads are defined by particular rhyming and couplet schemes.
• Most ballads in the Americas and their Irish/Scottish ancestors follow a strict ABAB couplet form: four-line couplets with rhymes on the second and fourth lines, continuing throughout the song.

📝 Couplets in balladry

Couplets in music: Similar to couplets in poetry—paired lines of text/lyrics that usually rhyme and employ the same meter.

• Closed couplets: Include grammatical pauses between lines (indicated by periods or other punctuation).
• Open couplets: Carry the idea of line one into line two without a pause.

🌍 Old-world balladry

• Characteristics: Full of vague references but vivid with imagery and poetic understanding.
• Example from "Barbara Allen" (performed by Pete Seeger):
  • "Scarlet town" is not a specific place.
  • "Barbara Allen" is not a specific person in history.
  • The story uses imagery (rose and briar) to represent any couple with unrequited or difficult love.
• Why vague references matter: This vagary helps the tradition travel anywhere and at any time—the songs become timeless.

🇺🇸 New-world balladry

• Definition: Songs that came with Irish and Scottish settlers to the Americas, either newly composed or reinterpretations of old-world ballads.
• Key difference: Inclusion of specific details on time, place, and people.
• Example from "Harrison Town" (performed by Wayne Cantwell):
  • Mentions specific towns: Harrison, Eureka, Berryville, Little Rock, Carroll County—all traceable on a map.
  • Describes a specific story tied to Arkansas geography.
• Don't confuse: Old-world ballads use timeless, universal imagery; new-world ballads anchor stories in real locations and events, making them regionally specific.

Ballad type	References	Purpose	Example
Old-world	Vague (no specific place/person)	Timeless, universal stories	"Barbara Allen" – "Scarlet town," unnamed lovers
New-world	Specific (real towns, people, events)	Tied to regional identity	"Harrison Town" – Harrison, Berryville, Carroll County, Arkansas

🎻 Instruments of Ozark music

🎻 Three main instruments

While balladry is important, Ozark music is more commonly associated with instrumental music featuring three main instruments:

1. Fiddle
2. Banjo
3. Mountain dulcimer

• The fiddle and banjo are often accompanied by guitars, basses, and other incidental instruments.
• The dulcimer is often a solo instrument, an accompaniment to songs, or used in a dulcimer ensemble.

🎻 Fiddle (from Irish and Scottish culture)

• A transplant from Irish and Scottish culture brought to North America.
• Construction: Fiddles are constructed in the same manner as violins.
• Don't confuse: Though physically identical to violins, the playing style, musical characteristics, and social aspects of the instrument are different.

🪕 Banjo (from West Africa)

• A transplant instrument based on an instrument of West Africa.
• Origin: As African slaves were brought to the Americas, the akonting of the Jola people (now predominantly from Gambia) is likely the ancestor to the American banjo.

🎶 Mountain dulcimer (wholly American)

• A wholly unique American-made instrument.
• Type: A zither, played on the lap or a tabletop.
• Development: Developed as a rural instrument in the mountains of Appalachia.
• Example: "I'll Fly Away" performed by David Durrence (2011) demonstrates the instrument.

Instrument	Origin	Construction/Type	Playing context
Fiddle	Irish/Scottish transplant	Same as violin, different playing style	Often with guitar, bass, other instruments
Banjo	West African (akonting)	Transplant from Jola people	Often with guitar, bass, other instruments
Mountain dulcimer	Wholly American	Zither played on lap/tabletop	Solo, song accompaniment, or ensemble

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The Eurovision Song Contest, held annually since 1956, is a long-running international competition where countries submit one song each, and while most winners fade quickly, the event has launched major careers and carries political undertones despite rules forbidding political content.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What Eurovision is: an annual international song contest organized by the European Broadcast Union since 1956, with competitors representing their home countries after national selection.
• Language shift: previously contestants had to sing in a national language, but today most sing in English (only two of the last twenty winners as of 2019 sang in another language), boosting global appeal.
• Political dimensions: songs with political content are forbidden, yet political themes appear in lyrics and performance, and voting patterns suggest bloc voting and responses to international politics.
• Common confusion: no nationality restrictions on performers or songwriters—a Canadian (Celine Dion) won for Switzerland in 1988, showing the contest represents countries, not performer nationalities.
• Career outcomes: most winners get only momentary popularity boosts (like American Idol contestants), but notable exceptions include ABBA (1974) and Celine Dion (1988).

🎵 Contest structure and rules

🎵 Core format

The Eurovision Song Contest: an annual international song competition held since 1956 by the European Broadcast Union (EBU), where competitors represent their home countries after being selected in national competitions.

• One of the longest-running and most watched international song contests.
• Competitors mostly from Europe, but not exclusively.
• Each country determines its nominee through its own national competition.

📜 Key rules

Rule	Details	Implication
One song per country per year	Has stayed the same over the years	Limits each nation's representation
Language restrictions (historical)	Previously required national language; now no restriction	Most now sing in English for global appeal
Performer/songwriter nationality	No restrictions	Non-nationals can represent countries
Political content	Forbidden	Yet political themes still appear

• Example: Canadian Celine Dion won for Switzerland in 1988 because there are no nationality restrictions on performers or songwriters.
• Don't confuse: the contest represents countries, not the nationalities of the performers themselves.

🌍 Language evolution

• Previously: contestants had to sing in a national language.
• Today: most participants sing in English.
• Impact: assisted in the global appeal of the event and songs.
• Data point: only two of the last twenty winners (as of 2019) sang in a language other than English, even though none of those winning entrants came from a country where English is the primary language.

🎭 Political dimensions

🎭 Forbidden but present

• Songs with political content are officially forbidden.
• Reality: some political themes have still been present in the lyrics and in the performative aspects of some songs.
• The contest's role as a competition of nations has inherent political undertones.

🗳️ Voting and international politics

• Allegations of countries voting together in blocs.
• The event is used to respond to international politics.
• Example: Jordan suspended the broadcast of Israel's winning 1978 entry after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon that year.

🇺🇦 Case study: Jamala's "1944" (2016)

• Background: Ukraine's entry by singer/songwriter Jamala; won the contest.

• Subject matter: addresses the deportation of over 190,000 Crimean Tatars in 1944 by the Soviet Union during the Stalin regime.

  • Forcibly displaced by train to Uzbekistan in Central Asia.
  • Several thousand died during transit and several thousand more perished in harsh exile conditions.
  • Not able to return until the late 1980s when their ban was lifted.
  • Jamala's father was Crimean Tatar; her relatives were deported and returned to Crimea in 1989.

• Contemporary context: released following the Ukrainian Revolution of 2014 when Russia controversially annexed Crimea (claimed by Ukraine).

  • Action opposed by many global leaders; sanctions imposed on Russia by the United States and the European Union.
  • Jamala admitted in an interview that the song reminded her of the condition of her family living in Crimea today under Russian occupation.

• Political controversy: accused of presenting political messages against Russians, but the EBU determined the song did not violate their rules regarding political speech.

🚫 Ongoing Russia-Ukraine tensions

• 2017: Russia's entrant Yulia Samoylova was barred from entering Ukraine because she had performed in Crimea after Russia's annexation without Ukrainian government permission; barred from the country for three years.
• 2019: Ukraine's entrant Maruv had her patriotism challenged during Ukraine's national competition, in part for a coming tour of Russia; while she won the public vote, she did not perform at Eurovision as Ukraine withdrew and did not send an entrant.

🌟 Notable winners and contestants

🌟 Career outcomes

• Most participants, and even winners, only receive a momentary boost in popularity.
• Similar to contestants on American reality singing competitions such as American Idol, The Voice, and The X Factor.
• A notable few have used the competition as a springboard for future success.

🏆 Most notable winners

Artist	Year	Country	Song	Later success
ABBA	1974	Sweden	"Waterloo"	Swedish pop-disco quartet; major international career
Celine Dion	1988	Switzerland	"Ne partez pas sans moi"	Canadian singer; major international career

• Don't confuse: Celine Dion is Canadian but represented Switzerland (no nationality restrictions).
• The song "Ne partez pas sans moi" was in French.

🎤 Other notable contestants

• Julio Iglesias: 4th in 1970 for Spain.
• Olivia Newton-John: 4th in 1974 for the United Kingdom (English-Australian singer).
• t.A.T.u: 3rd in 2003 for Russia (Russian pop duo).

🎶 Musical analysis: "1944"

🎶 Song structure and languages

• Verses: in English, written by the poet Art Antonym.
• Chorus: in Crimean Tatar, derived from the folk song "Ey, güzel Qırım" which Jamala learned from her great-grandmother.
• Blends contemporary and traditional elements.

🎻 Instrumentation and regional influences

• Duduk: a double reed instrument from Armenia; reflects the maternal side of Jamala's ancestry.
• Mugham style: found during the bridge and final outro section; a folk style from Azerbaijan.
• Example: the song opens with a duduk solo (0:00–0:08), establishing the regional character before the first verse.

📝 Lyrical content

Verse 1 themes (0:08–0:38):

• Describes strangers coming to your house, killing everyone, and claiming "not guilty."
• Questions: "Where is your mind? Humanity cries. You think you are gods. But everyone dies."
• Plea: "Don't swallow my soul. Our souls."

Chorus translation (0:39–1:11, repeated 1:44–2:14):

"I could not spend my youth there / Because you took away my land."

Verse 2 themes (1:12–1:43):

• Contrasts with a vision: "We could build a future / Where people are free / to live and love. / The happiest time."
• Repeats the questions and plea from Verse 1.

Bridge and outro (2:14–end):

• Sustained vowel sounds while singing in the Mugham style.
• Truncated chorus: "Vatanıma toyalmadım / I couldn't have my homeland."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Highlife, a national musical style of Ghana that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by mixing indigenous traditions with European instruments and influences, became associated with high society and later spread throughout West Africa, eventually evolving into modern forms like hiplife.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Origins and spread: Developed in Ghana in the late 19th/early 20th centuries; later spread to other West African countries, particularly Nigeria.
• Name and social context: Called "highlife" because it was initially associated with the aristocracy and performed at exclusive clubs.
• Musical foundation: Built on European brass band instrumentation and Latin American percussion, but melodic and rhythmic foundation came from indigenous styles, especially from the Akan people.
• Evolution over time: Thrived from the 1930s–1960s; after WWII, strongly influenced by American jazz; later evolved into hiplife in the 1990s by mixing with hip hop.
• Lyrical themes: Addressed national and political topics; during the independence period, many bands included nationalist ideals in their lyrics.

🌍 Historical and cultural context

🇬🇭 Ghana's demographic landscape

• Ghana gained independence in 1957 after British colonial rule.
• Population: just over 31 million as of 2020.
• Over 100 different ethnic groups; almost half are Akan.
• Eleven government-sponsored languages; English is the official language because no indigenous language is universally spoken.
• Colonial borders created ethnic diversity, as in much of Africa.

🎭 Social origins of the name

"Highlife": the name comes from the style's early associations with "high society."

• Initially performed at exclusive clubs for the aristocracy.
• The social context shaped both the name and early perception of the genre.
• Example: The music was not accessible to everyone; it was a marker of elite status.

🎵 Musical characteristics

🎺 Instrumentation evolution

Highlife went through distinct instrumental phases:

Period	Primary instrumentation	Additional elements
Early period	European brass bands	Latin American percussion (claves, castanets)
Later development	Smaller guitar bands emerged	Ensembles still included diverse percussion

• The shift from brass to guitar bands represented a democratization of the style.
• European instruments were the vehicle, but the musical content remained rooted in African traditions.

🎶 Melodic and rhythmic foundation

• Core source: Indigenous styles, particularly from the Akan people.
• The melodic and rhythmic foundation was African, not European.
• Don't confuse: Although European instruments were used, the musical structure came from local traditions.

🌐 Foreign influences

Multiple international styles shaped highlife:

• Latin American: Percussion instruments and rhythmic patterns.
• Jazz: After World War II, American soldiers brought jazz, which strongly influenced the style.
• Contemporary styles: Highlife absorbed influences from various popular music forms of its time.

🗣️ Language and lyrics

• Sung in a variety of African languages.
• English is also common (reflecting Ghana's official language).
• Lyrical themes: Wide-ranging, including national and political topics.
• Independence era: Many bands included nationalist ideals in their lyrics during the period before and after Ghanaian independence.
• Example: "Ghana Freedom" by E.T. Mensah expressed nationalist sentiments.

🔄 Evolution and legacy

📅 Peak period

• Highlife particularly thrived from the 1930s to the 1960s.
• This period coincided with growing independence movements and post-independence nation-building.

🎤 Hiplife: Modern evolution

Hiplife: Developed in the 1990s, mixes traditional Ghanaian music styles, particularly highlife, with hip hop.

• Creation credited to Reggie Rockstone.
• Largely performed in the Akan language of Twi.
• Represents the globalization of hip hop meeting local tradition.
• Don't confuse: Hiplife is not simply hip hop in Ghana; it specifically blends highlife's traditional elements with hip hop's contemporary form.
• Example: Reggie Rockstone's "Keep Your Eyes on the Road" demonstrates this fusion.

🌍 Regional impact

• Highlife spread beyond Ghana to other West African countries.
• Nigeria became a particularly important center for the style.
• The spread shows how musical styles can transcend colonial borders and create regional cultural connections.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Hip hop, which emerged from impoverished Bronx neighborhoods in the 1970s, has become the most popular and influential genre globally by 2021, shaping not only its own evolution from party music to socially conscious commentary but also influencing countless other genres and providing a voice for marginalized populations worldwide.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Origins and roots: Hip hop developed in the Bronx during the 1970s, building on Jamaican sound system traditions, funk, soul, and practices like "toasting" found in African and African-derived genres.
• DJ vs MC roles: Early hip hop emphasized the DJ (who played and manipulated records on turntables), but by the 1980s the MC/rapper became more prominent as lyrical innovation grew.
• Shift in lyrical content: Hip hop moved from party-oriented music (like "Rapper's Delight" 1979) to socially conscious commentary about urban African-American experiences (exemplified by "The Message" 1982).
• Common confusion: Don't confuse the DJ and MC roles—the DJ manipulates records and creates beats; the MC/rapper delivers vocals and lyrics. Early on DJs were central, but later rappers became more celebrated.
• Global influence: Hip hop has spread worldwide, influencing other genres (pop, rock, country) and combining with indigenous styles (bhangra, Hiplife in Ghana, Kwaito in South Africa) to give voice to marginalized communities.

🎵 Origins and foundational elements

🏙️ Bronx beginnings and Jamaican roots

• Hip hop music was developed in impoverished areas of the Bronx, New York City, during the 1970s.
• It built upon the Jamaican sound system tradition from the mid-1900s:
  • Sound systems included DJs, MCs, and engineers who put on parties playing reggae, ska, and rocksteady.
  • Early versions of rapping appeared as "toasts" or chants made over recordings.
  • Similar "toasting" practices are found in other African and African-derived genres.
• Initial hip hop events were neighborhood block parties where DJs played songs on turntables and MCs served as Masters of Ceremonies.

🎶 Musical foundations

• Much of hip hop's foundation was built upon funk and soul from the previous decade.
• DJs isolated and elongated the instrumental break found in funk and soul, using two turntables.
• Example: DJ Kool Herc (Jamaican-born) was one of the early pioneers credited with this technique.

🎧 Turntablism techniques

Turntablism: the art of manipulating records on turntables to create new sounds and compositions.

Key techniques developed:

• Back-spinning: looping a beat (potentially indefinitely) by switching between two copies of the same record.
• Scratching: the DJ moves the record back and forth on the turntable to create percussive sounds.
• These techniques elevated the turntable's status as an instrument that could provide unique sonic contributions.
• DJs could weave together and manipulate previous records to create new compositions.

🎤 Evolution of roles: DJ and MC

🔄 Early emphasis on DJs

• At the beginning, the emphasis was more on the DJ than the MC.
• The DJ played songs on turntables and developed innovative manipulation techniques.
• The MC initially introduced DJs, encouraged dancing, and energized the crowd.

📈 Rise of the MC/rapper

• During the 1980s, the role of rappers became more foregrounded.
• This shift paralleled a greater emphasis on lyrical innovation as the genre moved beyond its party origins.
• While DJs still serve a prominent role, the rapper or MC is now more commonly known and celebrated.
• Don't confuse: The DJ creates the instrumental backing and manipulates records; the MC/rapper delivers the vocal performance and lyrics.

🌟 Grandmaster Flash & the Furious Five

👥 The group and its innovations

• Formed: 1978 in New York City.
• Members: Keith Cowboy, Melle Mel, The Kidd Creole, Mr. Ness/Scorpio, Rahiem.
• Achievements:
  • Credited with broadening both the sound and lyrical content of hip hop.
  • Keith Cowboy is credited with originating the term "hip hop" while scat singing syllables to mimic soldiers' marching cadence.
  • First hip hop act inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

🎛️ Grandmaster Flash's contributions

• Born: Joseph Saddler in Barbados; grew up in New York City.
• Attended earliest hip hop parties and became fascinated with electronics and vinyl records.
• Technical innovations:
  • Developed back-spinning (looping beats by switching between two record copies).
  • Perfected scratching.
  • Elevated the turntable's status as an instrument with unique sonic contributions.
• Example: His 1981 recording "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel" demonstrated how he could weave together and manipulate previous records to create new compositions.

💬 "The Message" and the shift to social consciousness

📅 Context and significance

• Released: 1982, credited to Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five.
• Marked a shift away from party-oriented music (like The Sugarhill Gang's "Rapper's Delight" from 1979, the first hip hop song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 top 40).
• Presented socially conscious lyrics about the experience of African-Americans in decaying urban centers.
• This broadening of lyrical subject matter to include gritty realism and social commentary helped lead to new styles of hip hop in the 1980s.

🎵 Musical characteristics

• The song lacks Grandmaster Flash's innovative turntablism.
• Only rappers Duke Bootee (who originated the song and was not a group member) and Melle Mel are featured on the record.
• The backing track displays the funk and disco roots of hip hop.
• As of 2020, the song has been sampled in over 270 songs.

📝 Song structure and content

The song follows a verse-chorus structure with five verses:

Section	Time	Performer	Content focus
Introduction	0:00–0:43	Duke Bootee	Instrumental with synthesizers, staccato guitar, hollow drums; vocals enter at 0:24
Verse 1	0:43–1:02	Melle Mel	Urban decay: broken glass, rats, roaches, junkies, poverty
Chorus	1:02–1:16	Melle Mel	"Don't push me cause I'm close to the edge" – more syncopated vocal pattern
Verse 2	1:16–1:40	Melle Mel	Street life observations: "crazy lady," peep shows, survival struggles
Verse 3	2:00–2:28	Duke Bootee	Personal struggles: family issues, unemployment, inflation, strikes, mental strain
Verse 4	2:47–3:25	Melle Mel	Education system failure, crime, violence ("pushed that girl in front of the train")
Verse 5	3:44–4:51	Melle Mel	Life cycle in the ghetto: birth, limited opportunities, crime, incarceration, death

🔍 Lyrical themes

• Urban decay: broken glass, rats, roaches, junkies, poverty ("Got no money to move out, I guess I got no choice").
• Economic hardship: repossessed cars, bill collectors, unemployment, inflation.
• Violence and crime: stabbings, muggings, murder ("Stabbed that man right in his heart").
• Systemic failure: poor education, limited opportunities leading to crime.
• Cycle of poverty: Verse 5 traces a life from birth in the ghetto through crime to death in prison, illustrating how circumstances trap individuals.
• Example: "A child is born with no state of mind / Blind to the ways of mankind" → grows up admiring criminals → drops out of school → turns to crime → imprisoned → dies in prison.

🌍 Global spread and influence

🌐 Hip hop as a global phenomenon

• As of 2021, hip hop is the most popular and influential genre of current popular music, both within the United States and globally.
• It is a globalized musical form that has spread throughout the world.
• Many genres and styles addressed in other chapters display hip hop influences.

🎶 Cross-genre influence

• Even songs categorized in other genres (pop, rock, country) display hip hop influences:
  • Backing beats.
  • Rap-like vocal approaches.
  • Guest verses by established rappers.

🗣️ Voice for marginalized populations

Hip hop has frequently been combined with indigenous styles to provide a voice for marginalized populations:

Region/Style	Description
Bhangra (new version)	Punjab Indian folk music and dance tradition that emerged in the 1980s with hip hop influences
Hiplife	Hip hop combined with indigenous styles in Ghana
Kwaito	Hip hop combined with indigenous styles in South Africa

• These hybrid forms demonstrate how hip hop serves as a tool for cultural expression and empowerment for marginalized communities worldwide.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Chimurenga music, created by Thomas Mapfumo during Zimbabwe's liberation struggle, blended traditional Shona elements with Western styles to protest apartheid rule and later critique post-independence government corruption.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Historical context: Chimurenga refers to both Zimbabwe's liberation struggles (1896–1897 and 1965–1980) and the music style Thomas Mapfumo established during the second Chimurenga.
• Musical fusion: Mapfumo mixed traditional Shona music (especially mbira sounds) with Western rock, R&B, reggae, jazz, and South African mbaqanga.
• Political evolution: The music's commentary shifted from supporting the nationalist movement against apartheid to critiquing the Mugabe government's corruption after independence.
• Common confusion: Mapfumo's relationship with the government—he supported the liberation movement but later became a critic of the same leaders once they gained power.
• Key technique: Adapting the mbira's sound to electric guitar by palm-dampening plucked strings to create a similar timbre.

🎵 Origins and historical context

🏛️ The Chimurenga liberation struggles

Zimbabwe experienced two major uprisings called Chimurenga (a Shona word for liberation or revolutionary struggle):

• First Chimurenga (1896–1897): Uprising against British colonial rule; ended with the assassination of a leader, followed by colonial rule until 1965.
• Second Chimurenga (1965–1980): Black nationalists used guerrilla warfare to overthrow the apartheid white government of Rhodesia (established by white minority independence in 1965); succeeded in forming the Republic of Zimbabwe in 1980.

🎶 Birth of Chimurenga music

Chimurenga music: a style established by Thomas Mapfumo during the second Chimurenga period, mixing traditional Shona elements with Western popular styles.

• Like other music in colonially impacted areas, it represents a fusion of indigenous and foreign influences.
• The music protested apartheid rule initially, then shifted its focus after independence.

🦁 Thomas Mapfumo's musical journey

🎸 Early career and evolution

• Born: 1945; nicknamed the "Lion of Zimbabwe."
• Starting point: Began as a teenager playing covers of American rock and roll and R&B.
• 1970s shift: Searched for an original sound by incorporating traditional Shona music elements.
• Early 1970s: Played Afro-rock with the Halelujah Chicken Run Band, using standard rock instrumentation.

🎹 The mbira adaptation technique

Mapfumo worked with his guitarist to adapt the Shona's signature instrument, the mbira, to electric guitar:

• Method: Guitarist plays with palm dampening the plucked strings.
• Result: Creates a timbre similar to the mbira (heard in "Pfumuvhu Parizevha").
• Later development: Mid-1980s onward, Mapfumo included actual mbira in his music (without the buzzy bottlecaps timbre).

Don't confuse: The guitar technique mimics the mbira sound; later he used both adapted guitar and actual mbira instruments together.

🗣️ Lyrical and stylistic changes

• Language shift: Moved from English to Shona language.
• Vocal techniques: Added more vocables and yodeling.
• Tone: Lyrics became more political and revolutionary.
• Influences: Incorporated reggae, jazz, and South African mbaqanga alongside Shona traditions.

⚖️ Political trajectory and government relations

🚫 Persecution under apartheid

• 1976: Formed the Acid Band; music grew in popularity.
• Government response: Music was banned on state-controlled radio stations.
• 1977: Mapfumo was imprisoned.
• 1978: After release, formed his signature band, the Blacks Unlimited.
• Impact: His music (especially "Tumira Vana Kuhondo" / "Mothers Send Your Children to War") is credited with promoting and supporting the nationalist movement.

🔄 Post-independence shift

After Zimbabwe's independence in 1980, Mapfumo's political focus changed:

Period	Target	Relationship
During second Chimurenga (pre-1980)	Apartheid white government	Supportive of nationalist movement led by Mugabe
After independence (1980+)	Mugabe-led government	Critical of corruption

Robert Mugabe's role:

• Leader of black nationalist movement during second Chimurenga.
• Prime Minister (1980–1987), then President (1987–2017).
• Resigned after a 2017 coup.
• As his government's corruption became apparent, he became Mapfumo's new target.

🌍 Exile and return

• 2000: Mapfumo left Zimbabwe for the United States as tensions grew.
• 2018: Returned for a performance after Mugabe's ouster—his first return in 18 years.
• Contribution: Participated in the burgeoning worldbeat and world music scene while abroad.

🎧 Case study: "Disaster" (1999)

📝 Song context

• Artist: Thomas Mapfumo and The Blacks Unlimited
• Released: 1999, shortly before Mapfumo left for the US
• Purpose: Pointed critique of the Mugabe regime

🎼 Musical structure and lyrics

Introduction (0:06–0:24):

• Punctuated electric guitar foreshadows vocal rhythm.
• Second guitar enters, interweaving with the first (similar to interlocking mbira sounds).
• Mbira heard lightly in background; drumset establishes regular pattern.

First verse (0:24–0:48) — Call-and-response pattern:

• Vakomana muno mune disaster (people, there is trouble in the nation)
• Mumba menyu muno mune disaster (there is great trouble in the home)
• Pattern repeats with Mapfumo and backing singers alternating.

Refrain (0:48–1:11):

• Helele mama helele mama (repeated four times)

Second verse (1:11–1:34):

• Vakomana muno mune disaster (people, there is tragedy in the nation)
• Munyika medu muno mune disaster (there is great trouble in the home)

Instrumental development (1:58–2:27):

• Winds and more percussion enter (jazz influence).
• More active mbira line starts at 2:09.

Corruption verse (2:27–2:50) — Direct political critique:

• Vakomana muno maita corruption (people there is corruption)
• Repeated in call-and-response.

Extended refrain (2:50–3:14):

• Helele mama helele mama
• Tapera nematsotsi (dishonest people have caused ruin upon us)

Guitar solo (3:14–3:37): Instrumental break.

Final vocal section (3:37–4:47):

• Backing singers lead with three lines:
  1. Yowerere matsotsi (ohhh, dishonest people)
  2. Mapfumo responds: Yeuru yeuru yowererere (oooooooooooohhhhhhh)
  3. Vakomana muchamhanya (woe upon us – we are in great trouble)

Outro (4:47–End): Instrumental section led by winds.

🎯 Key musical features

• Interlocking guitars: Mimic the traditional two-mbira interweaving sound.
• Mbira presence: Actual instrument used alongside adapted guitar technique.
• Call-and-response: Traditional African vocal pattern between lead and backing singers.
• Genre fusion: Rock instrumentation + Shona mbira + jazz winds + African vocal styles.
• Lyrical directness: Explicit references to "disaster," "corruption," and "dishonest people" targeting the regime.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Jingju is a northern Chinese theatre form characterized by specialized role types, stylized performance techniques, and a small onstage ensemble led by the bangu player who coordinates music with the actors' movements.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Four specialized roles: sheng (male hero), dan (female), jing (painted face with loud voice), and chou (clown/minor character)—performers train in one role type from childhood.
• Heterophonic texture: the jinghu (main melodic instrument) plays the same melody as the singer but with more notes, creating a layered sound.
• Bangu as conductor: the bangu drum player takes cues from the actors and provides rhythmic structure, "narrating" footsteps and other percussive story elements.
• Common confusion: while stories are ancient parables, performers improvise references to modern events and audience members without breaking the core story.
• Heightened language: dialogue is layered with references to history and ancient Chinese literature, originally intended for elite audiences who would understand such allusions.

🎭 Role types and specialization

🎭 Sheng – male hero role

Sheng: a primary male role, typically portrayed as the hero of the story, but often seen as naïve and a bit arrogant.

• Covers many types: young men, older men, wise men, and philosophers.
• Performers specialize in this role for their entire career, beginning training as children.
• Traditionally all performers were boys and men; even today, female performers are less common and men remain the most famous.

👘 Dan – female role

Dan: a primary female role that is highly specialized in jingju.

• Traditionally performed by boys and men, though the role is female.
• Like the sheng, can cover a wide range of types.
• Tends to have a high-pitched voice.
• Example: In "Water Fight," two dan roles portray sister snakes in human form whose actions cause reactions from acrobatic characters.

🎨 Jing – painted face role

Jing: painted face role that can be primary or secondary characters, but always very strong characters requiring a large, loud voice.

• Painted faces are highly stylized with symbolic colors:
  • Black denotes integrity
  • Red denotes loyalty
  • White denotes evilness and wit
• Typically has a booming low voice, contrasting with the high-pitched sheng, dan, and chou.

🤡 Chou – clown role

Chou: most often a secondary minor role, often playing the fool.

• Usually a character that provides plotlines for the main characters: jailers, maids, animals, etc.
• Has a painted face, but less elaborate than the jing, signified by a circle of chalk around the nose.
• Tends to have a high-pitched voice.

🎪 Performance characteristics

🎪 Storytelling and improvisation

• Stories tend to be told in parables of ancient times.
• Over 1,400 plays in the repertory.
• Performers improvise lines to incorporate practices and events of today.
• They would not break important elements of the story, but might add references to important audience members or large world events to bring modern context to ancient stories.
• Don't confuse: improvisation does not mean changing the core story—only adding contemporary references within the traditional framework.

🤸 Acrobatic action scenes

• Jingju is known for its acrobatic action scenes, often depicted in fight scenes between primary characters and minor character groups.
• Example: "Water Fight" scene from "The White Snake" includes 10–20 minor characters who do not speak in the performance.
• The music is quite chaotic with many tempo changes despite the meter staying constant in duple form.

🗣️ Stylized dialogue

• The true artistry of this form is in the stylized dialogue.
• Sheng, dan, and chou characters tend to have high-pitched voices; jing typically has a booming low voice.
• Dialogue is often layered with references to history and ancient Chinese literature.
• The heightened language was intended for elite audiences that would understand such references.

🎵 Musical ensemble and coordination

🎵 Ensemble placement and leadership

• Performers are accompanied by a small ensemble of instruments placed on stage to one side.
• The ensemble is led by principal musicians who must match their tempo, timings, and entrances with the actors on stage.
• The "conductor" of the ensemble is the bangu player (a small drum).

🎻 Jinghu – main melodic instrument

Jinghu: small, high-pitched two-string spike lute, the main melodic instrument of the ensemble.

• Similar to the common erhu in traditional Chinese music, but smaller and higher in pitch.
• Two strings are bowed by a horsehair bow strung between the two metal strings.
• Matches the melody of the performer on stage, creating a heterophonic texture.
• The jinghu will play more notes than the actor will sing, but the melodies are the same.
• Example: When a singer performs a line, the jinghu plays the same melody but with additional embellishments and ornamentations.

🥁 Bangu – conductor drum

Bangu: single-headed frame drum played with two slender sticks, the conductor of the ensemble.

• All musicians take cues from the bangu performer, who takes their cues from the actors.
• "Narrates" footsteps and running as well as other percussive noises of the story while providing rhythmic structure to the music.
• The bangu player often also plays a clapper called a guban.
• Why it matters: The bangu creates the coordination between music and action, ensuring the ensemble stays synchronized with the actors' movements and dramatic timing.

🎼 Other instruments in the ensemble

🎼 Harmonic and melodic support

Instrument	Description	Function
Yueqin	Moon-shaped plucked lute	Harmonic and melodic support
Dizi	Transverse (side-blown) flute	Melodic instrument
Suona	Double-reed horn, distinctively loud	Signifying instrument marking important points in the story

🔔 Percussion instruments

Instrument	Description	Function
Daluo	Set of percussive gongs	Rhythmic support and entrance announcements; deeper daluo are rung for primary characters

🎺 Ensemble flexibility

• The ensemble can be made up of numerous Chinese instruments.
• The ensemble can be increased in design if the story dictates the need for additional instruments.
• The instruments listed (jinghu, yueqin, dizi, suona, bangu, daluo) are standard to almost all jingju productions.

🎨 Production elements

🎨 Visual and sonic characteristics

• Known for elaborate costuming, complex storytelling, acrobatics, and distinctive sonic characteristics.
• Fully formed by the mid-19th century in northern China.
• Also known as Peking Opera or Beijing Opera.

🎨 Historical context

• A form from northern China.
• Traditionally, all performers were boys and men.
• Even today, female performers are less common and men remain the most famous performers of the genre.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Kabuki theater developed as a sophisticated yet accessible theatrical tradition for common people in Japan, featuring elaborate staging, codified performance styles, and supernatural storytelling that remains culturally significant today.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Historical audience divide: Traditional Japanese theater split by caste—elites enjoyed complex refined art, commoners enjoyed fantasy-infused depictions of daily life; Kabuki was always intended for commoners.
• Development and codification: Originated in the early 1600s CE as low-budget outdoor plays; evolved into sophisticated performances with elaborate staging, costuming, and storytelling while remaining approachable.
• Two performance styles: Full productions with large troupes and complex staging vs. solo/chamber dances featuring individual performers with off-stage musicians.
• Distinctive theatrical elements: Exaggerated costumes and makeup, the "mie" stylized pose that establishes character roles, and three categories of music (geza, shoso-ongaku, ki/tsuke).
• Common confusion: Though highly literary and sophisticated now, Kabuki was not for elites—it referenced folklore and depicted everyday people (often interacting with supernatural elements) in ways accessible to commoners.

🎭 Origins and social context

🏛️ Caste system and audience

• Before early twentieth-century modernization, Japan had strict caste divisions between elites and commoners.
• Elites: highly educated, literate, enjoyed refined and highly complex artforms.
• Commoners: less commonly educated, understood literature mainly through oral tradition, enjoyed artforms reflecting daily lives depicted in fantasy.
• Kabuki was always intended for common everyday people, not elites.
• Today anyone can attend, but the original audience context shaped its accessible yet sophisticated character.

📜 Early development (1600s CE)

• The tradition developed in the early 1600s CE as regional, low-budget plays for outdoor stages.
• Early plays were less sophisticated than modern Kabuki, but stories from that period still appear on the Kabuki stage today.
• Stories often depict everyday people's lives but include supernatural layers: gods, demons, ghosts, and anthropomorphized animals.
• Example: A commoner character might encounter a ghost or demon within a story about daily life.

🎨 Evolution and codification

• As the tradition developed, staging, costuming, and storytelling became codified.
• The result: a sophisticated yet still approachable form of theatrical performance.
• Kabuki can be highly literary, using references to commonly known stories and legends in Japanese folkloric history, mythos, and daily lives.
• Don't confuse: "approachable" does not mean simple—the tradition became complex while maintaining accessibility for non-elite audiences.

🎪 Performance styles and formats

🎬 Full productions

• Most common for theaters with large troupes of performers.
• Features:
  • Elaborate staging and period architecture
  • Complex stage tricks
  • Major story plots
  • Full troupe involvement
• Known for exaggerated costumes and makeup, especially for supernatural characters.

💃 Solo and chamber dances

• Less common form based on full-production performances.
• Feature individual performers rather than full staging and plot development.
• Often include off-stage musicians and singers accompanying the silent dancer.
• Example: An onnagata performer dances silently while musicians and singers provide accompaniment from off-stage.

🎎 Onnagata role type

Onnagata: female role type, traditionally performed by men.

• Can be of any age, but most celebrated performers exclusively play beautiful, delicate, and young characters.
• The excerpt mentions Bando Tamasaburo V as the most famous onnagata performer.
• He is a hereditary actor, trained all his life to continue a tradition passed down from father, grandfather, and earlier generations.
• Solo onnagata pieces often feature off-stage musicians and singers with the silent dancer.

🎨 Distinctive theatrical elements

🧍 Mie pose

Mie (pronounced "mee-eh"): a stylized theatrical stance always present in Kabuki that establishes the character's role in the story.

• This exaggerated pose is a signature element of Kabuki performance.
• It communicates the character's function and identity within the narrative.
• The mie is also used as a similar device in Japanese manga and anime genres.
• Don't confuse: The mie is not just a dramatic pause—it specifically establishes character role in the story.

👘 Costuming and makeup

• Kabuki is known for exaggerated costumes and makeup.
• Supernatural characters receive especially theatrical treatment.
• The detail in costuming and makeup is a defining feature of the tradition.

🎵 Musical categories and instruments

🎶 Three typical music categories

The excerpt identifies three typical categories, though there is no standard for instrument use—ensembles can be fully visible on stage, hidden out of sight, or on stage behind scenery.

Category	Function	Examples from excerpt
Geza	Provides sound effects for the play	Sounds of waves stylized on a drum; rumbling of thunder
Shoso-ongaku	Accompaniment to dancing and acting	Musicians may provide the voice of actors (in solo dances) or background music for actors to sing and dance along
Ki/Tsuke	Standard percussive sound effects using wooden blocks	Ki: piercing percussive pulses for character action (e.g., running); Tsuke: louder slam on stage floor to demonstrate action

🥁 Ki and tsuke sound effects

• Both produced by a set of wooden blocks.
• Ki: piercing percussive pulses that demonstrate action on stage, often the running of a character.
• Tsuke: a louder sound produced by the same instrument when slammed on the floor of the stage; also a sound effect to demonstrate action.
• These are standard elements in Kabuki productions.

🎼 Ensemble placement flexibility

• Depending on the director's staging decisions and the tradition of a particular play, musicians can be positioned in various ways.
• No standard rule governs instrument use or placement.
• Musicians may be fully visible, completely hidden, or on stage but behind scenery.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Isicathamiya, a South African vocal style performed primarily by Zulu migrant workers, synthesizes indigenous Zulu traditions with foreign influences like minstrelsy and Christian hymnody, and gained international recognition through groups like Ladysmith Black Mambazo.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What it is: a performative vocal style in South Africa associated with Zulu migrant workers; the name means "on tip toe" or to walk carefully, reflected in signature dance moves.
• Origins: a synthesis of indigenous traditions (Ingoma stomping dance, choral singing) and foreign influences (minstrelsy, ragtime, Christian hymns).
• How it differs from Mbube: Isicathamiya emphasizes harmonious vocal blend, while Mbube is more forceful; both are a cappella styles performed by Zulu migrant workers.
• Performance features: call-and-response between lead tenor and bass-heavy ensemble, elegant coordinated attire, stylized synchronized dance on toes with stomping.
• Social role: fostered through weekend competitions in urban centers, serving as points of pride and helping establish "homeboy" networks among migrants.

🎵 Musical roots and influences

🌍 Indigenous traditions

• Ingoma dance: a stomping dance of the Zulu people, incorporated into Isicathamiya's choreography.
• Choral singing: found among many Indigenous peoples in eastern South Africa; provided the vocal foundation.

🎭 Foreign influences

• Blackface minstrelsy: 19th-century American theatrical entertainment that reinforced racial stereotypes but also spread musical styles.
  • Orpheus McAdoo, an African American singer and impresario, toured South Africa in the 1890s; his group is credited with influencing the creation of Isicathamiya.
  • Minstrel groups brought ragtime and other musical traditions.
• Christian hymnody: missionaries spread four-part homophonic hymn textures, which inspired the vocal arrangement in Isicathamiya.

🦁 Relationship to Mbube

🦁 What Mbube is

Mbube: translates as "lion"; an earlier South African vocal style that was more forceful in sound than Isicathamiya.

• Typically performed a cappella by Zulu migrant workers.
• Used to create a sense of community; groups held weekly competitions.
• Emphasized powerful vocals, particularly soaring male falsetto leads.

🔄 How Isicathamiya contrasts with and was influenced by Mbube

• Contrast: Isicathamiya desires a harmonious blend, while Mbube is more forceful.
• Influence: both styles share the a cappella format, migrant worker context, and competition tradition.
• Don't confuse: Mbube is not simply "louder Isicathamiya"; the aesthetic goal differs—force vs. blend.

🎶 "Mbube" song legacy

• The most well-known Mbube song: "Mbube" by Solomon Linda and the Evening Birds (1939).
• Recording included light instrumental accompaniment but emphasized vocals.
• American ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax found the recording and gave it to folk musician Pete Seeger.
• Seeger's group The Weavers created "Wimoweh" (a transliteration of the Zulu phrase in the song).
• The Tokens' 1961 "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" became the most commercially successful version.

🎤 Performance characteristics

👥 Ensemble structure

• Groups range from four to over twenty members.
• Arranged in parts inspired by four-part homophonic Christian hymn textures.
• Mostly bass singers with fewer higher singers, including a tenor lead.

🗣️ Vocal patterns

• Call-and-response: frequent pattern between the lead singer and the larger accompanying ensemble.
• The emphasis is on blended harmony rather than forceful projection.

👔 Visual presentation

• Coordinated elegant attire: matching suits, white gloves, two-toned shoes.
• Dance moves are stylized and synchronized.
• Performed up on the toes (reflecting the "on tip toe" meaning of Isicathamiya).
• Incorporates stomping movements from the Zulu Ingoma dance.

🏆 Social context and competitions

🏙️ Weekend competitions

• Initially fostered during weekend competitions in major urban centers like Durban and Johannesburg.
• Groups performed for a designated judge.
• The ultimate prize was usually nominal (not large monetary rewards).

🤝 Social functions

• Served as a point of pride and dignity for migrant workers.
• Helped establish "homeboy" networks between people from similar areas.
• Created a sense of community among Zulu migrant workers living in urban centers.

📻 Dissemination

• While initially fostered through competitions, the style later spread through recordings and concert performances.

🌟 Ladysmith Black Mambazo and international recognition

🎸 Formation and name

• Formed in the early 1960s by Joseph Shabalala.
• One of the most renowned Isicathamiya groups.
• Name meaning:
  • "Ladysmith": Shabalala's hometown.
  • "Black": references the black ox, considered the strongest farm animal, connecting to Shabalala's early life on his family's farm.
  • "Mambazo": means "axe" in Zulu, symbolizing the group's vocal strength.

🌍 Graceland collaboration

• Achieved international recognition after collaborating with Paul Simon on his 1986 album Graceland.
• Paul Simon had gained prominence as part of Simon & Garfunkel in the 1960s, then pursued a solo career from 1970.
• Graceland was released after a period of personal and professional issues for Simon.
• Simon was inspired by recordings of South African music and collaborated with South African musicians in Johannesburg.
• Controversy: these actions violated a United Nations cultural boycott of South Africa due to the apartheid government.
• The album was commercially and critically successful, garnering international attention for Ladysmith Black Mambazo.

🎵 "Diamonds on the Soles of Her Shoes"

• One of the songs on Graceland.
• Structure:
  • First 58 seconds: performed by Ladysmith Black Mambazo alone, singing Zulu text.
  • Simon enters at 0:15, sometimes in call-and-response, sometimes harmonizing.
  • The group returns at 4:32 with backing vocals.
• Music video: the group is featured throughout, positioned behind Simon, performing signature Isicathamiya dance moves (dancing on toes, kicks, stomp-like motions).
• Example: the opening showcases the blended vocal harmony and call-and-response pattern typical of Isicathamiya, then integrates with Simon's folk-pop style.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Hula is a traditional Native Hawaiian dance inseparable from its music and text, existing in two distinct styles—pre-colonial kahiko and post-colonial 'auana—each with unique instruments, movements, and cultural contexts.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Two main styles: kahiko (pre-colonial, chant-based, forceful) vs. 'auana (post-colonial, song-based, graceful).
• Oral transmission: hula, music, and chant are passed down through spoken words and physical action from teacher to pupil, not written records.
• Inseparability of text and movement: the dance and music are interconnected; without one, the other does not make sense.
• Common confusion: kahiko uses sacred percussion instruments (ipu heke, pahu) and chant (mele hula), while 'auana uses guitars, 'ukulele, and song (no chant), and avoids sacred instruments.
• Cultural context: Hawai'i is the northernmost island in Polynesia, settled by Polynesians from the Marquesas and Tahitian Islands, unified as a kingdom in 1795, and later annexed by the United States.

🌺 Cultural and historical context

🏝️ Geography and settlement

• Hawai'i is an island chain in the Pacific Ocean, part of Polynesia (which also includes New Zealand/Aotearoa and Easter Island/Rapa Nui).
• People in Polynesia are related culturally and ethnolinguistically.
• First settlers arrived from the Marquesas Islands around 300 CE, later from Tahitian Islands around 1000 CE, bringing Polynesian mythos, foodstuffs, agriculture, and culture.

👑 Political history

• King Kamehameha I unified the islands in 1795.
• The Hawaiian kingdom lasted until 1893, when the queen was overthrown by American businessmen.
• Hawai'i later became the fiftieth U.S. state.
• Today it is multicultural, with influences from American, Japanese, Chinese, Filipino, Portuguese, and Native Hawaiian cultures.

🗣️ Oral tradition

Oral traditions: knowledge passed from one generation to the next through spoken words and physical action rather than written communication.

• This allows a continuous line of information from teacher to pupils.
• When the pupil masters the material and gains the right to teach, the tradition is passed on again.
• Hawaiian dance, music, and chant are all transmitted this way.

🎶 Kahiko style (pre-colonial)

🥁 What kahiko is

• Kahiko: pre-colonial style hula.
• Uses mele hula (chant for dance, often with percussive accompaniment).
• The chant is in the Native Hawaiian language and comes in many forms for specific occasions (e.g., mele pule for religious purposes, mele pana to honor a place or person).

🪘 Instruments used by chanters and dancers

Kahiko instruments are mostly idiophones and membranophones, used by both dancers and chanters:

Instrument	Type	Description
Ipu heke	Double gourd percussion	Often used by chanters to provide driving rhythmic motion
Pahu	Drum	Made of hollowed log and sharkskin; used by chanters
Pu'ili	Slit bamboo idiophones	Used by dancers to add sonic effects

• Chanters use gourd drums or large skinned drums for rhythm.
• Dancers use various implements to add sonic effects.

💪 Movement and dress

• Movements are forceful to show strength and fierceness.
• Highlights the power of both male and female dancers.
• Example: warrior hula shows fierce movements and exaggerated motions.
• Dress: pre-colonial style.
  • Male: ceremonial warrior clothing that intentionally shows the body.
  • Female: modest, with natural fiber fabric skirts, shell necklaces, head and ankle bands made of leaves.

🎵 Musical structure

• Example: "Ho'opuka I Kai Ka La I 'Unulau" (The Sun Rises Over the Sea of 'Unulau)
  • 0:00–0:01: two taps on ipu heke
  • 0:02–0:04: recitation of the chant's name
  • 0:05–0:08: rhythm and tempo set by ipu heke
  • 0:08 onward: chant with continued rhythmic support from ipu heke
• Strict metric order and steady tempo allow for dancing.

🌸 'Auana style (post-colonial)

🎸 What 'auana is

• 'Auana: post-colonial style hula.
• Does not use chant; instead uses song.
• Developed after the importation of non-Hawaiian popular musics from America and Hawaiian interpretations of foreign musics.

🎻 Instruments and sound

• Small instrumental group: guitars, string bass, piano, and most often 'ukulele.
• Sonically quite different from kahiko, but still has strict metric order and steady tempo for dancing.
• Example: "Ke Aloha" features guitar, 'ukulele, and string bass, with singers using a range from quite low to high falsetto.
• Sacred instruments (pahu, ipu heke) are not used in 'auana due to their sacred nature.
• Dancers may use pu'ili and a flourished, feathered rattle.

🌺 Movement and dress

• Movements are graceful and flowing, more feminine than kahiko warrior dances.
• Texts tend to be lighter and less serious than kahiko.
• Not all 'auana examples are slow; some are quite fast and energetic.
• Dress: variety of clothing.
  • Male: board shorts and aloha shirts.
  • Female: modern gowns or hand-crafted skirts made of ti leaves ornamented with feathers and flowers.
• More creative interpretations for visual effect.

🎭 Don't confuse kahiko and 'auana

Feature	Kahiko	'Auana
Era	Pre-colonial	Post-colonial
Vocal style	Chant (mele hula)	Song (no chant)
Instruments	Ipu heke, pahu, pu'ili (sacred percussion)	Guitar, 'ukulele, string bass, piano (no sacred instruments)
Movement	Forceful, fierce, exaggerated	Graceful, flowing, feminine
Dress	Pre-colonial ceremonial (natural fibers, shells, leaves)	Modern or creative (gowns, board shorts, aloha shirts, feathered ornaments)
Text tone	Serious, powerful	Lighter, less serious

🔗 The inseparability of hula and music

🤝 Text and movement confluence

The most important trait of hula is the confluence of text and movement.

• The dance is interconnected with the text.
• The text is enhanced by the dance.
• Without one, the other does not make sense.
• Hawaiian culture cannot separate hula from its music, unlike some Western traditions that can separate music from other cultural practices.

📖 Key vocabulary

Term	Definition
Hula	Traditional dance of Native Hawaiians
Mele oli	Solo chant with no instrumental accompaniment
Mele hula	Chant for dance, often with percussive instruments as accompaniment
Kahiko	Pre-colonial style hula
'Auana	Post-colonial style hula

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Bhangra evolved from a traditional Punjabi harvest celebration into a hybrid popular music and dance style that reflects the dual identity of the Punjabi diaspora, especially in the United Kingdom.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Origins and context: Bhangra is a music and dance style from the Punjab region of northwest India, traditionally performed at harvest celebrations, weddings, and festivals.
• Distinctive instruments: Traditional instruments like the dhol (barrel drum), chimta (metal tong with jingles), tumbi (single-string fiddle), and algoza (double flute) serve as sonic markers that tie the style to the region.
• Vigorous dance style: Bhangra dance features constant motion, wide stances with elevated legs, and brightly colored loose-fitting clothing called vardiyaan.
• Popular diaspora version: A new version emerged in the 1980s Punjabi diaspora (especially the UK), mixing folk elements with hip hop, reggae, and electronic dance music while maintaining traditional instruments and rhythms.
• Common confusion: Traditional Bhangra (folk, harvest celebrations, Punjabi language) vs. popular Bhangra (diaspora hybrid, often in English, mixed with Western styles)—both share instruments and festive contexts but differ in musical influences and cultural setting.

🌍 Regional and spiritual context

🌍 Punjab and Sikhism

• Punjab is located in northwest India; the dominant religion is Sikhism, not Hinduism or Islam (which dominate the rest of India).
• Sikhism was established in the 15th century and is practiced by approximately 25 million people worldwide.
• Sikhs follow the teachings of ten Gurus, compiled in the sacred scripture Guru Granth Sahib.

🎶 Sikh musical traditions

• Sikh music draws from Indian music principles such as raga and tala, and uses some Hindustani instrumentation.
• Specific ragas are associated with hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Kirtan is a devotional call-and-response style performed at temples, encouraging participation.

🥁 Traditional instruments

🥁 Dhol (barrel drum)

The dhol is a large two-headed barrel drum typically played with two sticks made of wood or bamboo.

• A light stick plays the higher 'treble' head; a curved stick plays the bass head.
• It typically repeats a 4-beat syncopated pattern that dancers follow.
• The dhol is one of the main instruments in Bhangra music.

🔔 Chimta (metal tong)

The chimta is a metal tong with attached jingles.

• Also used in Punjabi folk styles and Sikh devotional music.
• In Bhangra, it is particularly used to emphasize the downbeat.

🎻 Tumbi (single-string fiddle)

• A small single-string plucked fiddle that creates a distinctive high-pitched sound.
• Featured in Western popular music, such as Missy Elliot's 2001 song "Get Ur Freak On" and Panjabi MC's work.

🎺 Algoza (double flute)

• A double end-blown flute where one flute provides the melody and the other a drone.

🔍 Why these instruments matter

• They operate as distinct sonic markers that tie the style to the Punjab region, even when mixed with Western popular influences.
• They differentiate Bhangra from Hindustani music, the art music tradition of northern India.

💃 Traditional dance

💃 Movement characteristics

• Bhangra dance is quite vigorous with constant motion.
• A common element is a wide stance, often with one leg elevated to waist height.
• Dancers switch between legs after a fixed number of beats, depending on the move.
• Hands are frequently held high with palms out and the thumb and index finger joined.

👗 Attire (vardiyaan)

• Dancers wear brightly colored clothing called vardiyaan.
• The attire is loose fitting to allow for movement.
• The clothing reflects the celebratory contexts of performances (harvest, weddings, festivals).

🎉 Context and mood

• The lively and joyous nature of harvest celebrations, weddings, and festivals is reflected in both the music and the dance.

🌐 Popular Bhangra in the diaspora

🌐 Historical context of the diaspora

• A new version of Bhangra emerged not in India but in the Punjabi diaspora, particularly the United Kingdom.
• Throughout the 20th century, Punjabi people immigrated to new lands, especially after the 1947 partition of colonial British Raj into India and Pakistan.
• The Punjab region was divided along religious lines: Muslims in Pakistan, Sikhs and Hindus in India.
• Displacement occurred on both sides of the border; in subsequent decades, more Punjabi Indians immigrated to the UK and other former British Commonwealth countries.

🎵 Musical fusion (mid-1980s onward)

• A new style emerged during the mid-1980s that mixed elements of the folk tradition with contemporary popular styles and techniques.
• Influences include hip hop, reggae, and electronic dance music.
• The popular version maintains many characteristic sonic markers of the folk tradition, particularly traditional instruments like the dhol and its signature rhythms.
• The popular style can be in traditional Punjabi language or in English, the primary language of the new lands.

🎭 Cultural significance

• Similar to the folk version, the popular version is largely used for festive occasions, particularly weddings and festivals.
• The vigor of the original accompanying dance has been preserved.
• The hybrid nature of popular Bhangra reflects the hybrid identity of the new generation of Punjabi Sikhs, many of whom have been raised entirely outside of India.

🎬 Example: Bend It Like Beckham (2002)

• The film focuses on 18-year-old British Punjabi Sikh Jesminder 'Jess' Bharma and her conflict between traditional parental expectations and broader London cultural practices.
• The soundtrack reflects the characters' dual worlds:
  • More traditional-sounding Indian music in scenes with Indian elders.
  • Bhangra for scenes with Indian youths.
  • Western popular music for locales outside the Punjabi immigrant community.

🎤 Case study: Panjabi MC – "Mundian To Bach Ke"

🎤 Artist background

• Panjabi MC (birth name Rajinder Singh Rai) is one of the most prominent artists within the genre of Bhangra.
• Born in England, his music fuses traditional Punjabi elements with contemporary styles such as hip hop, R&B, and electronic dance music.

🎵 Song structure and elements

"Mundian To Bach Ke" ("Beware of the Boys") (1997)

Time	Section	Musical elements
0:00–0:08	Instrumental intro	Just the tumbi on the melody
0:08–0:19	Intro continues	Dhol is added to the tumbi
0:19–0:37	Verse 1	Vocals enter in Punjabi
0:37–1:07	Chorus	Includes a bassline sampled from the 1980s TV series Knight Rider theme song
1:07–1:28	Verse 2	Continues in Punjabi
1:28–1:48	Chorus	Repeats
1:48–2:10	Verse 3	Continues in Punjabi
2:10–2:39	Chorus	Repeats
2:39–3:01	Verse 4	Continues in Punjabi
3:01–End	Chorus 5/Outro	Final repetition

🔀 Hybrid characteristics

• Traditional Punjabi elements: instruments (dhol, tumbi), traditional bhangra beat patterns, Punjabi language.
• Western-derived elements: samples (e.g., Knight Rider bassline), rap-like vocal approach.
• Hip hop influences were further accentuated in a 2002 remix featuring American rapper Jay-Z.
• Example: The mixture demonstrates how popular Bhangra maintains sonic markers of the folk tradition while incorporating contemporary Western styles.

📝 Lyrical theme

• The song's lyrics ("Beware of the Boys") advise a young woman to be cautious about love and to protect her youth.
• Example verse translation: "Keep your face down and hide it with a scarf / Don't just give your love to anyone, beware of the boys."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Capoeira evolved from a fighting technique developed by enslaved Africans in Brazil into a recognized martial art, game, and dance that spread internationally and influenced other movement styles like breakdancing.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Origins and context: Capoeira emerged among enslaved Africans in Brazil (the last Western country to abolish slavery in 1888) as a fighting technique, possibly disguised as dance or game on plantations.
• Historical transformation: After emancipation and a period of prohibition (1890–1930s), capoeira shifted from a combat tool to a less aggressive dance/martial art form, eventually gaining governmental support and recognition as a sport in 1972.
• Musical ensemble: The berimbau (single-string bow) leads the ensemble, supported by percussion instruments like the atabaque (hand drum) and pandeiro (frame drum).
• Movement vocabulary: The defensive posture centers on the ginga (basic side-to-side step), emphasizing lower-body kicks, sweeps, and acrobatic movements that make the practitioner harder to attack.
• Cultural influence: Capoeira potentially influenced breakdancing in 1970s New York City, as both styles share acrobatic, lower-body-focused movements with hands and head used for stability.

🌍 Historical development and context

🌍 Colonial Brazil and slavery

• Brazil was under Portuguese control until 1822 (unlike most of Latin America, which was colonized by Spain and France).
• African slaves were first imported in the 16th century, adding to an already enslaved indigenous population.
• Brazil received more African slaves than any other country—over four million by many estimates.
• Brazil outlawed the slave trade in 1850 but did not emancipate slaves until 1888, making it the last Western country to do so.

⚔️ Emergence as a fighting technique

Capoeira initially emerged as a fighting technique, particularly practiced by escaped slaves and possibly openly practiced on plantations disguised as a dance or game.

• Many escaped slaves formed autonomous settlements called quilombos in remote areas.
• The disguise as dance or game may have allowed practice to continue under the eyes of enslavers.
• Example: A group of enslaved people might practice combat movements in a circle while appearing to play music and dance.

🚫 Post-emancipation prohibition

• After emancipation in 1888, few opportunities or employment existed for formerly enslaved people.
• Some capoeiristas were hired by criminal gangs.
• The Brazilian government formally prohibited capoeira in 1890.

🎓 Evolution and recognition

• In the early 1900s, the style evolved into a less aggressive form of dance and martial art instead of a tool of combat and intimidation.
• Formal capoeira schools were first formed in the 1930s, led by a mestre (master).
• With prohibition lifted, new schools spread throughout Brazil, many with governmental support.
• Groups toured nationally and internationally, spreading the style.
• The Brazilian government recognized capoeira as a sport in 1972.

🎵 Musical instruments

🎻 Berimbau (lead instrument)

The lead instrument in the capoeira is the berimbau, a single string instrument.

Construction:

• Long wooden bow
• Wire string
• Gourd held against the player's stomach

Playing technique:

• Left hand holds a metal coin or stone and positions the instrument against the body
• Right hand holds a slender stick (for striking) and a rattle called caxixi

Three tones produced:

Tone	Technique	Sound
Lower	Stone not against string	Lower pitch
Buzzy	Stone lightly against string	Buzzy sound
Higher	Stone pushed tightly against string	Higher pitch

Ensemble role:

• Likely of African origin
• Typically three berimbaus of different pitches (low, middle, high) are used
• The lowest-pitched berimbau leads the ensemble
• The excerpt notes "slight momentary modifications in the berimbau's pattern through the course of the song"

🥁 Atabaque (hand drum)

• A tall hand drum used in many other Afro-Brazilian traditions in addition to capoeira
• Supporting percussion instrument

🪘 Pandeiro (frame drum)

• Frame drum similar in construction to a tambourine
• Has a head on one side and metal jingles along the rim
• Don't confuse: Unlike the berimbau (African origin), the pandeiro is derived from a similar instrument found in Spain and Portugal
• Also used in other Brazilian national styles such as samba and choro

💃 Movement and martial art

💃 Ginga (basic movement)

The ginga step is the basic movement in capoeira and from which most other steps and movements are derived.

Defensive posture characteristics:

• Bent stance low to the ground
• Constant side-to-side movement
• The continual movement and crouch position make the dancer/fighter more difficult to attack

🦵 Movement vocabulary

• Most focus is on lower body movements
• Striking kicks and sweeps
• Some movements can be quite acrobatic
• Hands and sometimes head are used for stability

🌐 Cultural connections

🌐 Influence on breakdancing

Capoeira potentially influenced the development of breakdancing, which emerged as part of the hip hop movement in New York City in the 1970s.

Evidence and similarities:

• Documented capoeira troops were in New York City during that period
• Numerous similarities between the two styles:
  • Both focus on acrobatic movements
  • Largely lower-body focused
  • Hands and sometimes head used for stability

Don't confuse: The excerpt states capoeira "potentially influenced" breakdancing, indicating a probable but not definitively proven connection.

🎤 Song example: "Negro Não Quer Mais Sofrer"

The excerpt includes a detailed breakdown of a capoeira song by Mestre Barrão (composed by Mestre Museu) in Brazilian Portuguese.

Musical structure (0:00–2:16+):

• Berimbau leads, with atabaque and other instruments added
• Call-and-response pattern between lead vocalist and group vocals
• Group vocals use vocables: "O-o-o, 0-o-o, O-o-o O"

Lyrical themes (translated):

• Historical memory of slavery: "The black man was born in slave quarters," "He came from captivity / For the master's whip"
• Ongoing struggle: "Even today in this life / Slavery never ends"
• Resistance: "The black man no longer wants to run / The black man no longer wants to suffer the master"

Example: The song connects capoeira's historical roots in resistance to slavery with contemporary social commentary, reinforcing the art form's cultural and political significance.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The Sema ceremony is a meditative whirling dance performed by the Mevlevi order of Sufism in Turkey, using highly symbolic movements and garments to honor God and achieve a heightened spiritual state.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What Sema is: a devotional Islamic ceremony performed by initiates of the Mevlevi order, followers of the 13th-century mystic Rumi.
• How it works: practitioners spin in a meditative dance while texts are recited, with every posture, garment, and gesture carrying symbolic meaning.
• Symbolic elements: the dark cloak (shielding from the world), tall brown hat (tombstone of the ego), white skirt (shroud of the ego), and arm positions (one hand reaching to God, the other transmitting blessings to Earth).
• Common confusion: the term "Whirling Dervishes" is an exoticized Western marketing name, not the authentic name of the ceremony.
• Purpose: through repetitive spinning and meditation on recited texts, practitioners aim to reach a heightened state of spiritual consciousness.

🌍 Religious and cultural context

🇹🇷 Turkey's diversity and religious landscape

• Turkey has a complicated history with many cultures moving in and out due to war, invasion, and governmental realignments.
• The population is culturally and linguistically diverse: ethnic Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, and others.
• Turkey is a secular country, but its population is overwhelmingly Muslim.

☪️ Islam and its sects

Islam: a monotheistic Abrahamic religion with belief in a central god figure, the second largest religion in the world with over one billion followers.

• Two largest sects:
  • Sunni: roughly 80% of Muslims.
  • Shia: roughly 15% of Muslims.
• Sufism: a small sub-sect within Sunni Islam; all Sufis belong to certain orders with their own traditions and practices.

🕌 The Mevlevi order

• A small but impactful religious order within Sufism, predominantly from Turkey.
• Adherents follow the teachings of Rumi, a Muslim mystic from the 13th century.
• The teachings and practices are considered mystical and highly spiritual in nature.

🎭 The Sema ceremony

🎭 What "Sema" means

"Sema" means "listening" and is meant to be a dance of deep meditation to honor God.

• It is an example of an Islamic devotional act.
• Practitioners are initiates to the Mevlevi order and are traditionally male only.
• Don't confuse: the Western term "Whirling Dervishes" is an exoticized marketing term used to attract tourists, not the authentic name.

🎶 Structure of the ceremony

The video example shows the following sequence:

Time	Event	Description
0:00	Recitation of text	Texts are recited to enable a state of meditation
0:46	Music begins	Single aerophone starts
1:10	Ensemble music	Music is very repetitive and steady; practitioners move to the floor
2:56	Removal of cloaks	Practitioners remove outer brown cloaks
4:15	Spinning begins	First dancer begins to spin with intentional shifts in body posture and arm/hand placements

• The music is repetitive and steady, supporting the meditative state.
• As the practitioner reflects on the recited texts, he prepares for the dance.

🧥 Symbolic garments and gestures

🧥 The dark cloak

• Shields the practitioner from the world.
• When removed, it signals that the dance may begin.

🎩 The tall brown hat

• Represents a tombstone.
• Marks the intentional death of one's ego.

👗 The white skirt

• Represents the shroud of the ego.
• Symbolizes trying to hide the ego from God.

🙏 Body posture and arm positions

• At the start: closed posture symbolizing closeness to God.
• Once spinning begins: arms outstretched.
  • One hand reaching up: to receive God's blessing.
  • Other palm facing down: to transmit God's power to the Earth.
• Everything seen in the ceremony is highly symbolic, from the position of the body to the garments.

🧘 Spiritual purpose and meditation

🧘 How the dance achieves spiritual consciousness

• Through the meditative action of dancing, the practitioner enters a state of deep meditation.
• The physical reaction of reaching to God and bringing blessings to Earth is repeated.
• This repetition brings a heightened state of consciousness in spirituality.

📖 Role of recited texts

• The practitioner reflects on the texts being recited during the ceremony.
• This performance of text enables a state of meditation.
• The combination of listening, reflecting, and spinning creates the spiritual experience.

Example: A practitioner listens to the recited texts, removes his cloak, and begins spinning with one hand up and one hand down, repeating this motion to deepen his meditative state and connection to God.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The Bira ceremony uses music—especially the interlocking mbira parts—to summon ancestral spirits into a medium so the Shona community can receive guidance from the spirit world.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What the Bira ceremony is: a Shona religious ritual in which an ancestral spirit possesses a medium to offer advice and guidance.
• Why music is central: each spirit has a favorite song that induces trance in the medium; music continues during singing and dancing with the spirit.
• The mbira's role: a lamellophone with 22–28 metal keys, often played in interlocking pairs (kushaura and kutsinhira) that weave together.
• Common confusion: the mbira is not only ceremonial—it is also used for social gatherings, though it is most closely associated with the Bira.
• Physical and spirit worlds: in Shona religion, ancestors remain as spirits among the living; successes and failures are tied to spiritual forces, so ceremonies maintain these relationships.

🌍 The Shona people and their religious context

🗺️ Who the Shona are

• The Shona are the majority ethnic group in Zimbabwe, a landlocked country in southern Africa.
• Before colonial contact, they lived in independent, patrilineal chiefdoms and traded agricultural products.
• Zimbabwe was under British colonial rule (South Rhodesia, then Rhodesia) and experienced apartheid from 1965–1979; independence came in 1980.

🙏 Shona religion and ancestral spirits

The Shona religion is monotheistic with a high god, but focuses on the relationship with ancestral spirits.

• Deceased ancestors do not inhabit a separate afterlife; they remain as spirits to watch over their families.
• The physical and spirit worlds are closely connected: someone's fortunes or misfortunes are attributed to spiritual forces.
• Example: great misfortune may indicate a neglected spirit.
• Don't confuse: although Christianity is now the majority religion in Zimbabwe (introduced during colonialism), most Shona continue traditional practices alongside it.

🎶 The Bira ceremony

🕯️ Purpose and structure

During the Bira ceremony an ancestral spirit is summoned to take possession of a medium; participants can then speak with the spirit and solicit advice and guidance.

• The ceremony may last several hours throughout the night.
• Each spirit is believed to have a favorite song that puts the medium into a trance.
• Once in trance, the medium puts on special clothing; music stops temporarily for conversation, then resumes so the spirit and attendees can sing and dance together.

🎵 The musical ensemble

The Bira ensemble includes:

• Singers
• Hosho: a gourd shaker
• At least two mbiras: the signature instrument of the Shona people

Music is not background; it is the mechanism that bridges the physical and spirit worlds by inducing trance.

🪕 The mbira instrument

🔧 What the mbira is

The mbira is a lamellophone (a category of plucked idiophones in the Hornbostel-Sachs system) with 22 to 28 metal tongs or keys, played with both thumbs and the forefinger of the right hand.

• Sometimes called a "thumb piano" in English.
• Strips of metal with attached metallic objects (e.g., bottle caps) are often included on the base, producing a buzzy sound that complements the bright plucked tones.
• The instrument is frequently placed in a deze (a hollowed half-gourd, sometimes with shells or bottle caps around the opening) to amplify the sound.

🕰️ History and related instruments

• The mbira's history can be traced back over a thousand years.
• Similar, smaller instruments called kalimbas or karimbas are found in other parts of Africa.

🎼 Interlocking performance technique

• The mbira is frequently performed in pairs that interweave and interlock with each other.

Part	Role
Kushaura	Plays the lead part
Kutsinhira	Interlocks with the kushaura and emphasizes the bass notes more

• Performers can also create three or more interlocking parts on a single mbira.
• Don't confuse: the mbira is closely associated with ceremonial use (especially the Bira), but it is also used for social gatherings.

🎵 "Nhemamusasa" – a standard mbira song

🏠 Meaning and repertoire

"Nhemamusasa" means "temporary shelter" or "to build a shelter" in the Shona language and is a standard song in the mbira repertoire.

• The excerpt mentions a Google Doodle on the mbira that allows you to play one line of the song and hear how it interlocks with other recorded parts.
• This illustrates the interlocking technique: each part fits together like puzzle pieces to create the full texture.

🎶 How interlocking works

• One line (e.g., kushaura) plays a repeating pattern.
• A second line (e.g., kutsinhira) fills in the gaps and emphasizes different pitches (often bass notes).
• The result is a continuous, cyclical texture where no single part sounds complete on its own.
• Example: if you play only the kushaura line, you hear a melody with rhythmic gaps; the kutsinhira line completes the rhythm and harmony.