🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German uses three different time expressions—vor (ago), seit (since), and schon (for/already)—each with distinct grammatical cases and tense requirements to express when actions happened or how long they have been ongoing.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• vor + dative = "ago": expresses completed actions in the past (e.g., "ten minutes ago").
• seit + dative = "since": describes ongoing actions that started in the past and continue now; requires present tense in German (unlike English past tense).
• schon + accusative = "for/already": alternative to seit for ongoing actions; also requires present tense and takes accusative case.
• Common confusion: German uses present tense with seit/schon because the action is still happening; past tense would mean you stopped doing it.
• Case distinction matters: vor and seit take dative; schon takes accusative.

⏰ Using vor for past time

⏰ What vor means with time

When used with time expressions, vor means "ago" and is always followed by the dative case.

• You already learned vor as a two-way preposition meaning "in front of."
• With time, it shifts meaning to express how long ago something happened.
• The action is completed in the past.

📋 Examples and pattern

Time expression	Case	Example sentence	English
vor zehn Minuten	dative	Josephine ist vor zehn Minuten aufgestanden.	Josephine got up ten minutes ago.
vor einem Monat	dative	Wir haben vor einem Monat ein neues Haus gekauft.	We bought a new house one month ago.
vor fünfzehn Jahren	dative	—	fifteen years ago
vor einer Stunde	dative	—	one hour ago

• Pattern: vor + dative time expression
• Always use past tense (conversational past or simple past) because the action is finished.

🔄 Using seit for ongoing actions

🔄 What seit means

Seit is a dative preposition meaning "since the time of" or "for (duration)"; it describes how long you have been doing something that you are still doing.

• Key difference from English: German uses present tense, not past tense.
• Why? Because you haven't stopped the action yet—it's still ongoing.

⚠️ Tense trap: present, not past

Critical rule: Use present tense with seit, even though English uses present perfect ("have been doing").

German (present tense)	English (past tense)
Wir wohnen seit vier Monaten in Alabama.	We have been living in Alabama for four months.
Wir lernen seit zwei Jahren Deutsch.	We have been learning German for two years.

• Don't confuse: If you used past tense in German, it would mean you stopped living there or stopped learning German.
• Example: "Wir wohnten in Alabama" = "We lived in Alabama (but don't anymore)."

📋 Case requirement

• Seit is a dative preposition, so the time expression following it must be in dative case.
• Example: seit vier Monaten, seit zwei Jahren.

🔁 Using schon as an alternative

🔁 What schon means

• Schon also expresses ongoing duration ("for" or "already").
• Like seit, it implies the action is still happening, so you must use present tense.
• Key difference: schon takes accusative case, not dative.

📋 Comparison: seit vs. schon

Feature	seit	schon
Meaning	since / for	for / already
Case	dative	accusative
Tense	present	present
Example	Ich wohne seit einem Jahr hier.	Ich wohne schon ein Jahr hier.

• Both mean "I have been living here for one year."
• Notice the case difference: seit einem Jahr (dative) vs. schon ein Jahr (accusative).

🔗 Combining schon and seit

• You can use both together to emphasize "since": schon seit.
• Example dialogue:
  • A: Wie lange wohnst du schon hier?
  • B: Ich wohne schon ein Jahr hier.
  • A: Schon so lange? Ich wohne schon drei Monate hier.
• The excerpt mentions a listening example where someone uses schon seit together to emphasize duration.

🎯 Why tense matters

🎯 Ongoing vs. completed actions

The tense choice signals whether the action continues or has stopped:

Situation	Tense	Example
Still doing it now	present	Ich lerne seit zwei Jahren Deutsch. (I'm still learning.)
Stopped in the past	past	Ich lernte Deutsch. (I learned it but stopped.)

• This is why the excerpt emphasizes "PRESENT TENSE!!!!!" with seit and schon.
• The listening exercise asks: "Why does he use present tense as opposed to past tense with this 'schon seit' statement?" Answer: because the action is ongoing.
• "Why does he use past tense with the last statement?" Answer: because that action is completed.

🧩 Don't confuse the cases

• Students often forget case distinctions.
• Quick reminder:
  • vor (ago) → dative
  • seit (since/for) → dative
  • schon (for/already) → accusative
• The excerpt includes review exercises on nominative vs. accusative and dative prepositions to reinforce these distinctions before moving forward.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Ein-word adjective endings follow the same pattern as der-word adjective endings except in three specific cases where the adjective must show the gender or case that the ein-word itself cannot indicate.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core pattern: Ein-word adjective endings match der-word endings in most cases, with only three exceptions.
• The three exceptions: masculine nominative, neuter nominative, and neuter accusative require different endings because "ein" alone doesn't show gender.
• Why the exceptions exist: The adjective must add the missing gender/case information that the article doesn't provide.
• Common confusion: Plural nouns without any article use -e instead of -en in nominative/accusative (not the standard -en from the chart).
• Building on prior knowledge: This system assumes you already know der-word adjective endings from earlier chapters.

📋 Review: Der-word adjective endings

📋 What der-words include

The excerpt reviews that der-words include:

• Definite articles (der, die, das)
• Dies- (this)
• Welch- (which)
• Jed- (each/every)
• All- (all)

🔑 Key patterns to remember

• All plurals add -en
• All dative and genitive add -en
• Certain forms (highlighted in the original) add -e
• The excerpt directs learners to review these patterns before proceeding to ein-words

🔀 The

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

This section provides practice exercises for using German modal verbs in the simple past tense through personal reflection prompts and historical description tasks.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What this section covers: exercises for practicing modal verbs (mussten, durften, wollten, konnten, mochten) in the simple past.
• Exercise types: personal childhood memories, unfulfilled goals, eating habits, and historical event descriptions.
• Grammar review included: subordinating conjunctions that move verbs to the end of clauses.
• Additional resources: external practice links and video episodes for further review of related grammar topics.

📝 Exercise themes

🏠 Childhood chores and permissions

The excerpt provides prompts asking learners to recall:

• What household tasks they had to do as children (using mussten)
• What they wanted to do but were not allowed to do (using wollten and durften)
• Comparing their responsibilities with siblings' tasks

Example: "Ich musste mein Bett machen" (I had to make my bed).

🍽️ Food preferences over time

• Learners describe what they liked to eat as children (using mochten)
• They compare past eating habits with current preferences
• The focus is on describing changes over time using simple past forms

🎯 Recent goals and obstacles

The "Unmöglich!" (Impossible!) exercise asks:

• What learners wanted to accomplish last week
• Whether they could achieve all their goals (using konnten)
• What they were unable to complete

🌍 Historical description task

📜 World events with modal verbs

Exercise E asks learners to describe a historical event using:

• Modal verbs in simple past (Präteritum)
• The verbs haben and sein in simple past

Suggested topics include:

• World War I or II
• The discovery of America
• The invention of the telephone

This exercise combines historical knowledge with grammatical practice.

🔗 Supplementary materials

🌐 External practice resources

• Link to Germanzone.org for additional modal verb exercises in simple past tense

📺 Video episodes

The excerpt lists several "Nicos Weg" episodes (9-12) covering:

• Family stories (reviewing possessive adjectives and dative case)
• Describing people (reviewing adjective endings)
• Generations
• Nursing homes

🔄 Grammar review

A review section on subordinating conjunctions is included, noting these are conjunctions that "kick the verb to the end of the clause."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Reflexive verbs in German reflect the action back onto the subject (the doer and receiver are the same person), and they require special reflexive pronouns that change based on the subject.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What makes a verb reflexive: the subject and object must be the same person (e.g., "she washes herself" vs. "she washes the dog").
• How German marks reflexive verbs: German uses the reflexive pronoun sich in the infinitive form and changes it based on the subject when conjugated.
• Common confusion: many verbs reflexive in German have no reflexive equivalent in English (no "oneself"); you must memorize which verbs take sich.
• Where to place the reflexive pronoun: put the reflexive pronoun (sich, mich, dich, etc.) right after the conjugated verb.
• Creating reflexive verbs: many non-reflexive verbs can be made reflexive simply by adding sich to them.

🔄 What reflexive means

🔄 Subject and object must be the same

A reflexive verb reflects the action back onto the subject.

• Compare two sentences:
  • "She is washing the dog" → subject (she) and object (dog) are not the same → not reflexive.
  • "She is washing herself" → subject (she) and object (herself) are the same → reflexive.
• In order to be reflexive, the doer and receiver of the action must be identical.

🇩🇪 How German shows reflexive verbs

• German uses a special reflexive marker: the pronoun sich.
• Example comparison:
  • Sie wäscht den Hund. (She washes the dog.) → not reflexive.
  • Sie wäscht sich. (She washes herself.) → reflexive, marked by sich.
• The infinitive form of reflexive verbs includes sich: sich waschen (to wash oneself), sich anziehen (to get dressed), sich ausziehen (to get undressed).

📚 Common reflexive verbs

📚 Examples from the excerpt

The excerpt lists several reflexive verbs with their infinitive forms:

German infinitive	English meaning
sich verletzen	to injure oneself
sich anziehen	to get dressed
sich ausziehen	to get undressed
sich ausruhen	to relax
sich beeilen	to hurry
sich erkälten	to get a cold
sich fühlen	to feel
sich verspäten	to be late
sich setzen	to sit oneself down
sich freuen	to be happy
sich baden	to bathe oneself
sich duschen	to take a shower

⚠️ Don't confuse: reflexive in German ≠ reflexive in English

• Often, verbs that are reflexive in German may not have a reflexive equivalent ("oneself") in English.
• Example: sich freuen means "to be happy," not "to happy oneself."
• The excerpt emphasizes: "They're just reflexive because that's the way German designed them."
• Reflexive verbs in one language never carry over one-to-one to other languages.
• You must learn which verbs take sich in German as part of memorizing the verb.

🔧 How to conjugate reflexive verbs

🔧 Placement of the reflexive pronoun

• When conjugating a reflexive verb, put the reflexive pronoun right after the conjugated verb.
• The excerpt notes that the reflexive pronoun changes based on the subject, similar to accusative pronouns.

📊 Reflexive pronouns in the accusative

• German uses reflexive pronouns that change based on the subject.
• They look a lot like the accusative pronouns.
• For third-person subjects (er, sie, es, sie plural, Sie formal), the reflexive pronoun stays sich.
• For other subjects, the pronoun changes (the excerpt mentions this but the chart details are referenced for the full pattern).
• Example: Ich wasche mich. (I wash myself.) vs. Du wäschst dich. (You wash yourself.) vs. Er wäscht sich. (He washes himself.)

➕ Creating your own reflexive verbs

➕ Adding sich to make verbs reflexive

• Many verbs can be made reflexive just by adding sich to them.
• The excerpt provides examples:
  • Non-reflexive: Der Mann liebt die Frau. (The man loves the woman.) → not the same person.
  • Reflexive: Der Mann liebt sich. (The man loves himself.) → the same person.
  • Non-reflexive: Der Hund verletzt die Frau. (The dog injures the woman.) → not the same person.
  • Reflexive: Der Hund hat sich verletzt. (The dog injured itself.) → same person.
• This flexibility means you can turn many ordinary verbs into reflexive ones by adding the reflexive pronoun.

👀 Keep learning new reflexive verbs

• The excerpt advises: "Keep an eye out for any new reflexive verbs!!!"
• As you encounter more German, you'll discover which verbs are commonly used reflexively.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The Plusquamperfekt (past perfect) describes actions that occurred before another past event, using the simple past form of the helping verb with the past participle, and it functions nearly identically to English "had done" constructions.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Core structure difference: Plusquamperfekt uses the simple past form of the helping verb (hatte/war) instead of the present form (hat/ist) used in conversational past.
• Timing relationship: Plusquamperfekt marks events that happened before another past action, creating a "further back" time layer.
• When to use it: If you would say "had done" in English, use Plusquamperfekt in German—the usage matches one-to-one between languages.
• Common confusion: Don't mix up conversational past (Perfekt) and past perfect (Plusquamperfekt)—the key is whether the action happened before or during the main past narrative.
• Narrative function: Often used to insert backstory or explain earlier events while narrating past events.

🔧 How Plusquamperfekt is formed

🔧 The structural difference from conversational past

The excerpt emphasizes that conversational past and past perfect differ only in the helping verb:

Tense	Helping verb form	Example
Conversational past (Perfekt)	Present tense (hat/ist)	Mein Vater hat gearbeitet
Past perfect (Plusquamperfekt)	Simple past (hatte/war)	Wir hatten sie besucht

• The past participle stays the same.
• You simply change the helping verb to its simple past form.

🛠️ Which helping verb to use

The excerpt notes that you use the simple past form of the helping verb:

• hatte (simple past of haben)
• war (simple past of sein)

The choice between haben and sein follows the same rules as conversational past (the excerpt references earlier chapter material for review).

⏰ When to use Plusquamperfekt

⏰ The "further back in time" principle

The Plusquamperfekt takes place at a point in time before the action in conversational past does.

• It marks events that happened before the main past narrative.
• Creates a timeline: Plusquamperfekt → conversational past → present.

Example from the excerpt:

• "Letzten Sommer haben wir unsere Großeltern in München besucht. Wir hatten sie schon vor fünf Jahren besucht."
• Translation: "Last summer we visited my grandparents in München. We had already visited them five years ago."

The second visit (last summer) is in conversational past; the first visit (five years ago) is in past perfect because it happened earlier.

📖 Backstory and narration

The excerpt explains that Plusquamperfekt is often used to explain backstory when narrating events:

Scenario: You're telling a story about going to the movies last weekend, then remember something that happened earlier:

• "Am Wochenende sind wir ins Kino gegangen. Wir haben den neuen James Bond Film gesehen. Meine Schwester hatte ihn schon vor zwei Wochen geguckt, aber ich habe ihn erst am Wochenende gesehen."
• Translation: "On the weekend, we went to the movies. We saw the new James Bond movie. My sister had already watched it, but I saw it first on the weekend."

The sister's viewing happened at an earlier time period, so it's marked with past perfect.

🗣️ The English parallel

The excerpt provides a simple rule:

Use your knowledge of English to help you. If you would normally say something like, "I had eaten" or "I had gone," then you will use the past perfect. It pretty much matches up one-to-one on usage in both English and German.

• Don't confuse: This is not about translating word-for-word, but about recognizing when English uses "had + past participle"—German does the same with Plusquamperfekt.

🎯 Practical application

🎯 The conjunction "nachdem"

The excerpt shows that Plusquamperfekt is commonly used with the subordinating conjunction nachdem (after):

Example pattern:

• "Nachdem ich das Bett gemacht hatte, bin ich zur Arbeit gegangen."
• Translation: "After I had made the bed, I went to work."

This construction explicitly shows the sequence: first action (Plusquamperfekt) → second action (conversational past or simple past).

🎯 Listening comprehension example

The excerpt references an audio example where a speaker says "Ich hatte kein Zimmer reserviert" (I had not reserved a room) while telling about a trip to Rome:

• The question posed: Why does he use past perfect instead of conversational past?
• The answer (implied by the lesson): Because not reserving the room happened before the main events of the trip he's narrating—it's backstory that explains what happened during the trip.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

The simple past tense in German is primarily used for formal writing (novels, newspapers, research papers) rather than conversation, and it follows predictable patterns for regular verbs (adding -t-) and irregular verbs (stem changes without -t-), with the same 90% rule determining regularity as in conversational past.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• When to use it: Simple past appears mainly in formal writing; 99% of German speakers use conversational past (Perfekt) in everyday speech, except for sein, haben, and modal verbs which are commonly spoken in simple past.
• Regular (weak) verbs: Add -t- between the stem and normal present tense endings (e.g., spielte, kochtest).
• Irregular (strong) verbs: Change their stem and do NOT add -t-; ich and er/sie/es take no ending (e.g., trinken → trank, gehen → ging).
• Common confusion: Don't mix the two systems—irregular verbs never take the -t- marker (saying wented or ated in English shows why this sounds wrong).
• Mixed verbs: A small group takes both the -t- ending AND a stem change (e.g., bringen → brachte).

📝 Regular (weak) verbs

📝 How regular verbs work

Regular (weak) verbs in simple past: add -t- between the stem and the normal present tense endings.

• English adds -ed to regular verbs (played, cooked); German adds -t-.
• The present tense endings remain, but the -t- goes between the stem and the ending.
• Example: wohnen → ich wohnte, du wohntest, er wohnte, wir wohnten, ihr wohntet, sie wohnten.

🔗 Key pattern to remember

• Ich and er/sie/es always have the same ending in simple past.
• The excerpt notes they "love each other and have to be together forever and ever"—a memory aid that both forms are identical.
• Example: ich spielte, er spielte (both end in -te).

💪 Irregular (strong) verbs

💪 How irregular verbs differ

Irregular (strong) verbs: stems change and do NOT add the -t- marker; they are "so strong that they change."

• English parallels: eat → ate (not eated), drive → drove (not drived).
• German examples: singen → sang, trinken → trank, laufen → lief, schwimmen → schwamm, gehen → ging.
• The changed stem is used for all conjugations.

🎯 Conjugation pattern

• Ich and er/sie/es get NO ending (just the stem).
• Other persons add endings similar to present tense: du -st, wir -en, ihr -t, sie -en.
• Example: trinken → ich trank, du trankst, er trank, wir tranken, ihr trankt, sie tranken.

⚠️ Common mistake

• Never add both the -t- and the stem change to irregular verbs.
• This would be like saying wented, ated, sanged, dranked in English—it sounds wrong because you're mixing two systems.
• Don't confuse: irregular verbs are strong enough that they don't need the -t- marker.

🔍 Recognizing irregular verbs

• The 90% rule from conversational past (Perfekt) works exactly the same way for simple past.
• Many German irregular verbs follow similar patterns to English because the languages share historical roots.
• Example patterns help: verbs often change in predictable groups (the excerpt mentions finding patterns in verb groups).

🔀 Mixed verbs

🔀 The hybrid category

Mixed verbs: take both the regular -t- ending AND an irregular stem change—"the best of both worlds."

• These verbs can't decide whether to be regular or irregular, so they do both.
• Many of them rhyme, making them easier to memorize.
• Example: bringen → brachte (stem change bring → brach + the -t- marker).

📊 Comparison table

Verb type	-t- marker?	Stem change?	Example
Regular (weak)	Yes	No	spielen → spielte
Irregular (strong)	No	Yes	trinken → trank
Mixed	Yes	Yes	bringen → brachte

🗣️ When to use simple past vs. conversational past

🗣️ Speaking vs. writing

• Conversational past (Perfekt): used by 99% of German speakers in everyday conversation.
• Simple past (Präteritum): used for formal narratives—novels, newspapers, research papers.
• Exception: sein, haben, and modal verbs are commonly used in simple past even in speech (learned in earlier chapters).

📖 Meaning is identical

• All three English translations mean the same thing: "We drove to Switzerland. We spent the night in an old hotel. Unfortunately, there were too many other guests."
• The choice between Perfekt and Präteritum is about register (formal vs. informal), not meaning.
• Don't confuse: you CAN speak in simple past if you want, but most people don't except for the common verbs mentioned above.

⏱️ Processing time advantage

• The good news: you'll mostly encounter simple past when reading, which gives you time to process it.
• When writing, you also have time to think about the forms.
• The forms people actually speak (simple past of haben, sein, modal verbs) were already learned in earlier chapters.

🔧 Separable prefix verbs

🔧 How they work in simple past

• Separable prefix verbs work exactly the same as in present tense (learned in Chapter 4).
• Conjugate the main verb for simple past, then "kick" the prefix to the end.
• Present: Sein Bruder macht die Tür zu.
• Simple past: Sein Bruder machte die Tür zu.
• The prefix separation rule doesn't change; only the main verb conjugation changes to past tense.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German has three distinct words for "when"—als, wenn, and wann—and choosing the correct one depends on whether you're asking a question, describing a repeated action, or referring to a single past event.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Wann is used for questions asking "at what time" something happens.
• Wenn means "whenever," "if," or "when" for repeated or future actions.
• Als is used for single events in the past, often with simple past tense.
• Common confusion: All three kick the verb to the end in subordinating clauses, but their meanings differ based on repetition and time frame.
• Why it matters: Using the wrong word changes the meaning—whether something happened once, happens repeatedly, or is being asked about.

❓ Wann: Questions and "at what time"

❓ When to use wann

Wann: "when"; used for questions and sometimes as a subordinating clause; answers the question "at what time."

• Wann is the question word you use to ask when something happens.
• It can also appear in subordinating clauses where you're expressing uncertainty about timing.

📝 Examples of wann

• Direct questions:
  • Wann kommst du nach Hause? (When are you coming home?)
  • Wann ist der nächste Film? (When is the next movie?)
  • Wann haben wir einen Test? (When do we have a test?)
• As a subordinating clause:
  • Ich weiß nicht, wann sie heiraten. (I don't know when they're getting married.)

🔑 Key characteristic

• Wann is about asking or expressing uncertainty about timing.
• Don't confuse: It's not used for statements about repeated actions or single past events—only for questions or indirect questions.

🔁 Wenn: Repetition, conditions, and future

🔁 When to use wenn

Wenn: "whenever," "if," "when" (multiple times)

• Use wenn for actions that happen repeatedly, conditionally, or in the future.
• It covers both "if" (conditional) and "when/whenever" (habitual or future).

📝 Examples of wenn

• Future actions:
  • Wenn ich Zeit habe, werde ich eine Reise nach Island machen. (When I have time, I will take a trip to Iceland.)
  • Wenn der Unterricht vorbei ist, will ich essen. (When class is over, I want to eat.)
• Repeated/habitual actions:
  • Ich übe Klavier, wenn ich Zeit habe. (I practice piano when(ever) I have time.)
• Conditional:
  • Wenn ich mit meiner Arbeit fertig bin, schreibe ich. (When/If I'm finished with my work, I'll write.)

🔑 Key characteristic

• Wenn implies repetition, future, or condition.
• Think: "whenever this happens" or "if this happens" or "when this will happen."

🕰️ Als: Single past events

🕰️ When to use als

Als: often used with simple past; refers to one event

• Use als for a single, completed event in the past.
• It often appears with simple past tense (Präteritum).

📝 Examples of als

• Als ich das Auto kaufte, hatte ich nur $4000. (When I bought the car, I only had $4000.)
• Als ich Meeresfrüchte aß, war ich sehr krank. (When I ate seafood, I was very sick.)
• Es war Mittwoch, als Ethan und Cameron den Film gesehen haben. (It was Wednesday when Ethan and Cameron saw the movie.)

🔑 Key characteristic

• Als is for one-time past events.
• Don't confuse: If something happened repeatedly in the past, you would use wenn, not als.
• Example contrast: "Als ich in Europa war" (when I was in Europe—one trip) vs. "Wenn ich in Europa war" (whenever I was in Europe—multiple trips).

🔀 Comparison and common confusions

🔀 Side-by-side comparison

Word	Meaning	Use case	Time frame
Wann	when	Questions, indirect questions	Any (asking about timing)
Wenn	whenever, if, when	Repeated actions, future, conditions	Present, future, or habitual past
Als	when	Single past event	Past (one time only)

⚠️ Don't confuse

• Als vs. wenn in the past: If it happened once, use als. If it happened repeatedly, use wenn.
  • Example: "Als ich das Auto kaufte" (when I bought the car—one purchase) vs. "Wenn ich ein Auto kaufte" (whenever I bought a car—multiple purchases).
• Wann vs. wenn: Wann is for questions; wenn is for statements about repeated/future/conditional actions.

🎯 Grammar note

• All three words kick the verb to the end when used as subordinating conjunctions.
• Example: "Wenn ich Zeit habe, werde ich..." (verb "habe" at the end of the subordinate clause).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German infinitives require the word "zu" (equivalent to English "to") in most contexts except when used with modal verbs or "werden," and special constructions like "um…zu" and "ohne…zu" express purpose and manner.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• When zu is NOT needed: with modal verbs (können, müssen, etc.) and the helping verb "werden" for future tense.
• When zu IS needed: in almost all other cases where an infinitive appears.
• Placement rule: "zu" always comes right before the infinitive; with separable prefix verbs, "zu" goes between the prefix and the main verb.
• Common confusion: knowing when to use "zu" vs. when to omit it—the key is checking whether a modal verb or "werden" is present.
• Special constructions: "um…zu" means "in order to" (expresses purpose), and "ohne…zu" means "without verb-ing" (expresses manner).

🔤 Basic zu with infinitives

🔤 What zu means

"zu" is the German equivalent of "to" when used with infinitives.

• In German dictionaries, infinitives are listed with "to" already implied (e.g., "nerven — to annoy").
• However, when actually using infinitives in sentences, you must add "zu" in most contexts.

✅ When zu is NOT used

Modal verbs and "werden" do NOT require "zu":

• With modal verbs: "Kannst du bitte die Pflanzen gießen?" (Can you please water the plants?)
• With future tense (werden): "Mein Bruder wird mich den ganzen Sommer lang nerven." (My brother will annoy me all summer long.)
• With past modal constructions: "Gestern musste ich unbedingt mit meinem Professor reden!" (Yesterday I absolutely had to talk to my professor!)

✅ When zu IS used

In any other case, use "zu":

• "Es macht Spaß, meine Schwester zu nerven." (It's fun to annoy my sister.)
• "Mein Nachbar hat versprochen, die Blumen zu gießen." (My neighbor promised to water the flowers.)
• "Ich habe gar keine Lust, mit dir zu reden." (I have no desire to talk with you.)

Rule of thumb: If you're NOT using a modal verb or "werden," you almost certainly need "zu."

📍 Placement and punctuation rules

📍 Where zu goes

Two critical placement rules:

1. "zu" must always come right before the infinitive
2. If you have other words in the infinitive phrase, set them off from the main sentence with a comma

Example: "Es macht Spaß, meine Schwester zu nerven."

• The comma separates the main clause from the infinitive phrase
• "zu" comes immediately before "nerven"

🔀 Separable prefix verbs

With separable prefix verbs, "zu" goes between the prefix and the main verb (where the dot normally appears in dictionary form):

• Dictionary form: auf·stehen
• With zu: "Ich bin nicht motiviert, am Wochenende früh aufzustehen." (I'm not motivated to get up early on the weekend.)
• The "zu" splits "auf" and "stehen"

Don't confuse: This is different from normal separable verb usage where the prefix goes to the end of the clause.

🎯 Um…zu construction (in order to)

🎯 What um…zu means

"um…zu" expresses purpose and means "in order to" in English.

• It answers the question "why?"
• The preposition "um" is added to the infinitive phrase
• Example: "Warum lernst du Deutsch?" → "Um nach Deutschland zu reisen!" (In order to travel to Germany!)

🎯 How to use um…zu

Structure:

• Main clause + comma + "um" + other words + "zu" + infinitive
• "Sie arbeitet bei McDonald's, um Geld zu verdienen." (She works at McDonald's in order to earn money.)

Test: If you can insert "in order to" in English and it makes sense, use "um…zu" in German.

Don't confuse: "um…zu" is NOT the same as plain "zu"—use "um…zu" specifically when expressing purpose or reason.

🚫 Ohne…zu construction (without verb-ing)

🚫 What ohne…zu means

"ohne…zu" means "without verb-ing" and expresses manner or absence of an action.

• "ohne" is the preposition meaning "without"
• Combined with "zu" + infinitive to show what action did NOT happen

🚫 How to use ohne…zu

Examples from the excerpt:

• "Die neue Studentin macht ihre Hausaufgaben, ohne ein Wörterbuch zu benutzen." (The new student does her homework without using a dictionary.)
• "Mein Mitarbeiter hat eine Pizza bestellt, ohne sie zu essen." (My roommate ordered a pizza without eating it.)
• "Sie ist nach draußen gegangen, ohne eine Jacke mitzunehmen." (She went outside without taking a jacket along.)

Structure: Main clause + comma + "ohne" + other words + "zu" + infinitive

Note: With separable verbs, the same rule applies—"zu" goes between prefix and verb: "mitzunehmen" becomes "ohne...mitzunehmen."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German has three main verbs for "leaving," and the key distinction is whether the verb requires a direct object: gehen and fahren do not, while lassen and verlassen must have one.

📌 Key points

• Core distinction: gehen and fahren mean "to go/leave" without requiring a direct object; lassen and verlassen both mean "to leave" but must have a direct object.
• What lassen requires: leaving something somewhere (an object left behind in a location).
• What verlassen requires: leaving a place (building, country, city) or abandoning someone.
• Common confusion: All three can translate to "leave" in English, but German grammar forces you to choose based on whether you're leaving something/someone behind or just departing.

🚶 Verbs without direct objects

🚶 Gehen – to go/leave

Gehen: to go or leave (intransitive, no direct object required).

• The subject is simply going away; no object is left behind.
• Example: Wann gehen wir? (When are we leaving/going?)
• It describes the act of departure itself, not what is being left.

🚗 Fahren – to leave (by vehicle)

• Works the same way as gehen: no direct object needed.
• Example: Ich fahre jetzt! (I'm leaving now!)
• The person is departing, but nothing specific is being left behind in the sentence structure.

Don't confuse: These verbs focus on the movement away, not on what remains.

🎒 Verbs that require direct objects

🎒 Lassen – to leave something somewhere

Lassen (a → ä): to leave something in a location.

• Must have a direct object: the thing being left behind.
• The object remains in a specific place while the subject departs.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • Sie lässt jedes Mal ihre Schlüsselkarte im Hotel. (She leaves her keycard in the hotel every time.)
  • Wir haben die Kinder bei Oma gelassen. (We left the kids at grandma's.)
  • Du sollst den Fahrschein in deiner Tasche lassen. (You should leave your ticket in your pocket.)

Key pattern: Subject + lassen + object + location.

🏢 Verlassen – to leave a place or abandon someone

Verlassen (a → ä): to leave a place (building/country/city) or to abandon someone.

• Must have a direct object: the place or person being left.
• Used for departing from locations or permanently leaving people.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • Elvis hat das Gebäude verlassen. (Elvis has left the building.)
  • Ich verlasse das Haus jeden Morgen um Viertel nach sieben. (I leave the house every morning at a quarter after seven.)
  • Der Vater verließ seine Familie. (The father left/abandoned his family [permanently].)

Key distinction: When leaving a place, use verlassen; when leaving an object in a place, use lassen.

📊 Summary comparison

Verb	Direct object?	What it means	Example context
gehen	No	To go/leave (just departing)	Wann gehen wir?
fahren	No	To leave (by vehicle)	Ich fahre jetzt!
lassen	Yes (thing)	To leave something somewhere	Keycard left in hotel
verlassen	Yes (place/person)	To leave a place; to abandon	Leaving the building; abandoning family

🔍 How to choose

• Ask: "Am I leaving something/someone behind, or just going away?"
  • Just going → gehen or fahren
  • Leaving an object in a location → lassen
  • Leaving a place or person → verlassen

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

When a reflexive verb already has a direct object (other than the reflexive pronoun itself), the reflexive pronouns mich and dich must switch to their dative forms mir and dir, but all other pronouns remain unchanged.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Basic reflexive verbs: reflect the action back onto the subject (e.g., sich verletzen = to injure oneself), using accusative reflexive pronouns when there is no other direct object.
• The dative shift rule: when an additional direct object appears in the sentence, mich becomes mir and dich becomes dir.
• Only "you and I" change: the pronouns for ich and du are the only ones affected; sich, uns, and euch stay the same in both cases.
• Common confusion: students often want to make every verb reflexive after learning this concept—stick only to verbs that are actually reflexive.
• Why it matters: this pattern appears in everyday actions like getting dressed (sich anziehen), buying things for oneself (kaufen), and worrying (sich Sorgen machen).

🔄 Basic reflexive verbs review

🔄 What makes a verb reflexive

Reflexive verbs reflect the action back onto the subject; the subject and direct object must be the same person.

• The verb requires a reflexive pronoun that changes based on the subject.
• Example: sich verletzen (to injure oneself) → Das Kind hat sich beim Fußballspielen verletzt. (The child injured himself/herself playing soccer.)
• In English these verbs often are not reflexive, but in German "it just is that way"—every language is different.

📝 Common reflexive verbs from the chapter

The excerpt lists several reflexive verbs that work like those from earlier chapters:

• sich erinnern (an) — to remember
• sich befinden — to be located
• sich anstellen — to make a big fuss
• sich langweilen — to be bored
• sich hinsetzen — to sit oneself down
• sich bei jemandem entschuldigen — to apologize to someone
• sich melden — to raise a hand in class
• sich beschäftigen (mit) — to focus on, be busy with
• sich benehmen — to behave

Example scenario: Das Skelett hat sich hingesetzt. (The skeleton sat itself down.) / Die große Fledermaus langweilt sich. (The big bat is bored.)

🔀 The dative shift: when reflexive pronouns change case

🔀 The core rule

When there is a direct object other than the reflexive pronoun, the reflexive pronouns mich and dich must change to dative mir and dir.

• This happens because the new direct object takes the accusative slot.
• The reflexive pronoun "defaults" to dative to avoid having two accusative objects.
• Only ich and du cause problems—no one else on the verb chart demands an extra reflexive pronoun change.

🧩 How the shift works: sich ausziehen (to take off)

Case	Example	Structure	Explanation
Accusative	Ich ziehe mich aus.	S V D	No extra direct object; mich is the direct object.
Dative	Ich ziehe mir die Handschuhe aus.	S V I D	Handschuhe is the direct object; reflexive becomes mir.

• Accusative: Du rasierst dich. (You shave yourself.) — dich is the direct object.
• Dative: Du rasierst dir die Beine. (You shave your legs.) — Beine is the direct object, so reflexive becomes dir.

✅ Other pronouns stay the same

All other reflexive pronouns (sich, uns, euch) do not change whether there is an additional direct object or not.

• Example with er/sie/es: Er kauft sich einen Roman. (He buys himself a novel.) — sich remains sich.
• Example with wir: Wir kaufen uns eine Fahrkarte. (We buy ourselves a ticket.) — uns remains uns.

Don't confuse: only mich/dich shift to mir/dir; the rest are stable.

🛠️ Common verbs that use the dative shift

🛠️ sich anziehen / sich ausziehen (to put on / to take off)

• Accusative (no extra object): Ich ziehe mich an. (I get dressed.)
• Dative (with clothing item): Ich ziehe mir das T-Shirt an. (I put on the T-shirt.)
• Accusative: Du ziehst dich aus. (You get undressed.)
• Dative: Du ziehst dir einen Gürtel aus. (You take off a belt.)

💰 sich etwas leisten (to afford something)

This verb always uses dative because "something" is always the direct object.

• Ich kann mir keine Busfahrkarte leisten. (I can't afford a bus ticket.)
• Du kannst dir eine billige Busfahrkarte leisten. (You can afford a cheap bus ticket.)
• Frau Frommen kann sich ein Auto leisten. (Ms. Frommen can afford a car.)

🧠 sich etwas überlegen (to think about something, ponder)

Always dative because the "something" being pondered is the direct object.

• Ich überlege mir die Antwort. (I'm thinking about the answer.)
• Du überlegst dir, was du heute essen möchtest. (You're thinking about what you want to eat today.)
• Der Student überlegt sich seine Zukunft. (The student is contemplating his future.)

🧼 sich waschen / sich kämmen (to wash / to comb)

• Accusative: Ich wasche mich. (I wash myself.) / Ich kämme mich. (I comb myself.)
• Dative: Ich wasche mir die Füße. (I wash my feet.) / Ich kämme mir die Haare. (I comb my hair.)
• Accusative: Du wäschst dich. / Du kämmst dich.
• Dative: Du wäschst dir das Gesicht. (You wash your face.) / Du kämmst dir die Haare. (You comb your hair.)

👁️ sich etwas ansehen (to take a look at something)

Always dative because the thing being looked at is the direct object.

• Als ich in Paris war, habe ich mir den Eiffelturm angesehen. (When I was in Paris, I took a look at the Eiffel Tower.)
• Du siehst dir den neuen Studenten an. (You're taking a look at the new student.)
• Wir sollten uns die schöne Landschaft in Bayern ansehen. (We should take a look at the beautiful landscape in Bavaria.)

😟 sich Sorgen machen (to worry)

Always dative because Sorgen (worries) is the direct object.

• Ich mache mir Sorgen. (I'm worried.)
• Du machst dir keine Sorgen. (You're not worried.)
• Er/sie/es macht sich Sorgen. (He/she/it is worried.)

🛒 kaufen (to buy oneself something)

• Accusative (simple purchase): Ich kaufe einen neuen Pulli. (I buy a new sweater.)
• Dative (buying for oneself): Ich kaufe mir einen neuen Pulli. (I buy myself a new sweater.) — structure is S V I D.
• Accusative: Du kaufst ein Eis. (You buy an ice cream.)
• Dative: Du kaufst dir ein Eis. (You buy yourself an ice cream.)

⚠️ Important reminders

⚠️ Don't overuse reflexive verbs

After learning reflexive verbs, many students want to make every verb reflexive—keep it to only reflexive verbs that are actually reflexive in German.

⚠️ The "you and I" rule

WICHTIG: Only du and ich cause problems with the dative shift. No one else on the verb chart demands an extra reflexive pronoun change—only you and I.

• mich → mir when there's an extra direct object
• dich → dir when there's an extra direct object
• All others (sich, uns, euch) remain unchanged

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German verbs paired with specific prepositions form fixed combinations that sometimes match English patterns one-to-one but often require memorization because the prepositions differ from their English equivalents.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What prepositional complements are: certain German verbs require specific prepositions to complete their meaning, just as English verbs do (e.g., "wait for" vs. "wait on").
• Two categories: some verb-preposition pairs match English directly (e.g., sprechen über = "speak about"), while others use different prepositions than English (e.g., warten auf = "wait for," not "wait on").
• Case matters: the preposition still governs case—accusative prepositions stay accusative, dative stay dative, and two-way prepositions go accusative about 90% of the time.
• Common confusion: two-way prepositions (an, auf, in, über, vor, etc.) usually take accusative with these verbs, but occasionally take dative (e.g., Angst haben vor + dative).
• Many are reflexive: a large number of these verbs are reflexive (e.g., sich freuen über, sich bewerben bei), combining two grammar patterns.

🔗 Verbs that match English patterns

🔗 One-to-one correspondences

Verbs with prepositional complements that align with English preposition usage.

• The excerpt lists verbs where the German preposition translates directly:
  • sprechen über + acc. = "speak about"
  • sich beschweren über + acc. = "complain about"
  • sich freuen über + acc. = "be happy about"
  • sich treffen mit = "meet up with"
  • sich ärgern über + acc. = "get angry about"
  • sich bewerben bei = "apply at"
  • sich informieren über + acc. = "inform oneself about"
  • sich streiten mit = "argue with"
  • sich unterhalten über + acc. = "talk about"
  • sich bedanken für = "say thank you for"
  • sprechen von = "speak of"

🎯 Why this matters

• These are easier to remember because the logic transfers from English.
• Example: "We're speaking about the new bank employee" → Wir sprechen über die neue Bankangestellte.
• Don't confuse: even though the preposition matches, you still must use the correct case (accusative or dative) required by that preposition.

🔀 Verbs that differ from English

🔀 Non-matching prepositions

Verbs where the German preposition does not correspond to the English one.

The excerpt emphasizes these require memorization:

German verb + prep	English meaning	Example mismatch
denken an + acc.	think of/about	German uses an, not über
warten auf + acc.	wait for	German uses auf, not für
sich erinnern an + acc.	remember	German uses an, English has no preposition
Angst haben vor + dat.	be afraid of	German uses vor
sich freuen auf + acc.	look forward to	German uses auf
bitten um	ask for	German uses um
sich interessieren für	be interested in	German uses für, English uses "in"
sich kümmern um	take care of	German uses um
sich bewerben um	apply for	German uses um
sich verlieben in + acc.	fall in love with	German uses in, English uses "with"
sich gewöhnen an + acc.	get used to	German uses an
gehen um	deal with, be about	German uses um

🧠 How to learn these

• The excerpt advises: you cannot translate word-for-word; you must memorize the German preposition for each verb.
• Example: Ich warte auf meinen Freund = "I'm waiting for my boyfriend" (not warten für).
• Example: Wir freuen uns auf den neuen Star Wars Film = "We're looking forward to the new Star Wars film."

📐 Case rules with prepositional complements

📐 Accusative prepositions stay accusative

durch, für, gegen, ohne, um, bis always take accusative objects.

• These prepositions govern accusative case regardless of context.
• Example: Wir bitten um den neuen Roman = "We're asking for the new novel" (den is accusative masculine).
• Example: Ich interessiere mich für dich und deinen Hund = "I'm interested in you and your dog" (both accusative).

📐 Dative prepositions stay dative

aus, außer, bei, mit, nach, von, seit, zu always take dative objects.

• Example: Er trifft sich mit seiner Freundin = "He's meeting up with his girlfriend" (seiner is dative feminine).
• Example: Sabine bewirbt sich um einen Job bei einem Restaurant = "Sabine is applying for a job at a restaurant" (einem is dative neuter).

📐 Two-way prepositions: usually accusative

an, auf, in, unter, hinter, neben, über, vor, zwischen go accusative about 90% of the time with verb complements, but occasionally dative.

• Default assumption: accusative.
  • Die Bankangestellte wartet auf die Kunden = "The bank employee is waiting for the customers" (accusative plural).
  • Wir sprechen über den Hauptbahnhof = "We're talking about the main train station" (accusative masculine).
  • Mein Bruder verliebt sich in jede neue Studentin = "My brother falls in love with every new student" (accusative feminine).
  • Wir gewöhnen uns langsam an die steigende Inflation = "We're slowly getting used to the rising inflation" (accusative feminine).
• Exception: Angst haben vor + dative.
  • Ihr habt Angst vor dieser giftigen Schlange = "Y'all are afraid of this poisonous snake" (dieser is dative feminine).
• Don't confuse: the 90% rule is a guideline; some verbs (like Angst haben vor) are exceptions and must be memorized.

🔄 Reflexive verbs with prepositional complements

🔄 Combining two patterns

Many of the verbs in the excerpt are reflexive (use sich) and require a prepositional complement.

• Example: sich freuen über = "be happy about" (reflexive + preposition).
• Example: sich bewerben bei = "apply at" (reflexive + preposition).
• The reflexive pronoun and the prepositional phrase work together to complete the verb's meaning.

🔄 Two different sich freuen verbs

The excerpt shows that the same base verb can pair with different prepositions and mean different things:

Verb + prep	Meaning	Case
sich freuen über	be happy about (present/past event)	accusative
sich freuen auf	look forward to (future event)	accusative

• Example: Wir freuen uns über deinen Besuch = "We're happy about your visit" (it already happened or is happening).
• Example: Wir freuen uns auf den neuen Star Wars Film = "We're looking forward to the new Star Wars film" (it hasn't happened yet).
• Don't confuse: the preposition changes the time reference and meaning.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German uses da-compounds and wo-compounds to create shorter, more native-sounding expressions when pronouns follow prepositions, but these compounds can only be used for things, not people.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What da-compounds do: replace "preposition + pronoun" combinations for things (e.g., "next to it" becomes daneben).
• What wo-compounds do: form questions with prepositional complements by combining wo + preposition (e.g., "about what" becomes worüber).
• Key restriction: da- and wo-compounds work only for things; for people, use regular accusative or dative pronouns.
• Common confusion: don't treat people like things—use ihn/ihm/ihr etc. for people, not da-/wo-compounds.
• Why it matters: using these compounds makes German sound more fluent and natural, especially with verbs that require prepositional complements.

🔧 How da-compounds work

🔧 Basic formation

Da-compound: da + preposition = "preposition + it"

• Instead of repeating a noun after a preposition, German adds da to the preposition.
• Example: Ich habe einen Schreibtisch. Mein Bett steht daneben. (I have a desk. My bed stands next to it.)
• The compound replaces the entire phrase "preposition + pronoun."

🔤 Spelling rules

• Consonant-starting prepositions: simply add da directly (da + mit = damit).
• Vowel-starting prepositions: insert -r- between da and the preposition (da + auf = darauf).
• You don't need to worry about case endings—the compound is already complete.

📋 Common da-compounds

Preposition	Da-compound	English
durch	dadurch	through it
für	dafür	for it
mit	damit	with it
neben	daneben	next to it
an	daran	at/on it
auf	darauf	on it
über	darüber	about/over it

🔍 Using da-compounds with verbs

🔍 With prepositional complements

• Da-compounds work especially well with verbs that require specific prepositions (prepositional complements).
• Example dialogue:
  • A: Erinnerst du dich an unseren Urlaub? (Do you remember our vacation?)
  • B: Natürlich erinnere ich mich daran! (Of course I remember it!)
• The compound daran replaces an unseren Urlaub, making the sentence flow better.

💬 Why they sound more natural

• Using da-compounds avoids repetition and makes speech more fluid.
• They're used frequently in everyday German, especially with verbs like sich beschweren über (complain about), sich freuen auf (look forward to), sich gewöhnen an (get used to).

🚫 The people restriction

🚫 Never use da-compounds for people

• Da-compounds treat their object as a thing, not a person.
• Wrong: Erinnerst du dich an meine Großmutter? Ja, ich erinnere mich daran. ❌
• This makes grandmother sound like an object.

👤 What to use instead

• Use regular accusative or dative pronouns depending on the preposition's case requirement.
• Correct: Ich erinnere mich an sie. (I remember her.) ✓

📊 Choosing the right pronoun

Case needed	Pronouns to use
Accusative	mich, dich, ihn, sie, es, uns, euch, sie
Dative	mir, dir, ihm, ihr, ihm, uns, euch, ihnen

• Example with sich beschweren über (+ accusative): Der Verkäufer beschwert sich über seinen Chef → Er beschwert sich über ihn. (not darüber)
• Example with Angst haben vor (+ dative): Ich habe Angst vor meiner Schwiegermutter → Ich habe Angst vor ihr. (not davor)

❓ How wo-compounds work

❓ Basic formation

Wo-compound: wo + preposition = question word asking "preposition + what"

• Works exactly like da-compounds but for questions.
• Example: wo + für = wofür (for what / what...for)
• The preposition becomes part of the question word.

🔤 Spelling rules for wo-compounds

• Consonant-starting prepositions: wo + mit = womit (with what)
• Vowel-starting prepositions: insert -r- (wo + an = woran, wo + über = worüber)

📋 Common wo-compounds

Preposition	Wo-compound	English
für	wofür	for what / what...for
mit	womit	with what
von	wovon	from/of what
an	woran	at/about what
auf	worauf	on what
über	worüber	about what

💭 Example questions

• Wovor hast du Angst? (What are you afraid of?)
• Wofür interessierst du dich? (What are you interested in?)
• Worüber beschwerst du dich? (What are you complaining about?)

🚫 People restriction for wo-compounds

🚫 Same rule applies

• Just like da-compounds, wo-compounds work only for things.
• Don't use them when asking about people.

👤 Use wen or wem instead

• For accusative: use wen (whom)
• For dative: use wem (to/for whom)
• Example: Auf wen wartest du? (For whom are you waiting?) — not worauf
• Example: Mit wem hast du gesprochen? (With whom did you speak?) — not womit

🎵 Cultural note

• The excerpt mentions the song Wofür by Silbermond, which demonstrates the difference between wofür (for what/things) and für wen (for whom/people).

9-3: Da- and Wo-Compounds

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German uses da-compounds and wo-compounds to create shorter, more native-sounding expressions when pronouns follow prepositions, but these compounds can only be used for things, not people.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What da-compounds do: replace "preposition + pronoun" combinations for things (e.g., "next to it" becomes daneben).
• What wo-compounds do: form questions with prepositional complements by combining wo + preposition (e.g., "about what" becomes worüber).
• Key restriction: da- and wo-compounds work only for things; for people, use regular accusative or dative pronouns.
• Common confusion: don't treat people like things—use ihn/ihm/ihr etc. for people, not da-/wo-compounds.
• Why it matters: using these compounds makes German sound more fluent and natural, especially with verbs that require prepositional complements.

🔧 How da-compounds work

🔧 Basic formation

Da-compound: da + preposition = "preposition + it"

• Instead of repeating a noun after a preposition, German adds da to the preposition.
• Example: Ich habe einen Schreibtisch. Mein Bett steht daneben. (I have a desk. My bed stands next to it.)
• The compound replaces the entire phrase "preposition + pronoun."

🔤 Spelling rules

• Consonant-starting prepositions: simply add da directly (da + mit = damit).
• Vowel-starting prepositions: insert -r- between da and the preposition (da + auf = darauf).
• You don't need to worry about case endings—the compound is already complete.

📋 Common da-compounds

Preposition	Da-compound	English
durch	dadurch	through it
für	dafür	for it
mit	damit	with it
neben	daneben	next to it
an	daran	at/on it
auf	darauf	on it
über	darüber	about/over it

🔍 Using da-compounds with verbs

🔍 With prepositional complements

• Da-compounds work especially well with verbs that require specific prepositions (prepositional complements).
• Example dialogue:
  • A: Erinnerst du dich an unseren Urlaub? (Do you remember our vacation?)
  • B: Natürlich erinnere ich mich daran! (Of course I remember it!)
• The compound daran replaces an unseren Urlaub, making the sentence flow better.

💬 Why they sound more natural

• Using da-compounds avoids repetition and makes speech more fluid.
• They're used frequently in everyday German, especially with verbs like sich beschweren über (complain about), sich freuen auf (look forward to), sich gewöhnen an (get used to).

🚫 The people restriction

🚫 Never use da-compounds for people

• Da-compounds treat their object as a thing, not a person.
• Wrong: Erinnerst du dich an meine Großmutter? Ja, ich erinnere mich daran. ❌
• This makes grandmother sound like an object.

👤 What to use instead

• Use regular accusative or dative pronouns depending on the preposition's case requirement.
• Correct: Ich erinnere mich an sie. (I remember her.) ✓

📊 Choosing the right pronoun

Case needed	Pronouns to use
Accusative	mich, dich, ihn, sie, es, uns, euch, sie
Dative	mir, dir, ihm, ihr, ihm, uns, euch, ihnen

• Example with sich beschweren über (+ accusative): Der Verkäufer beschwert sich über seinen Chef → Er beschwert sich über ihn. (not darüber)
• Example with Angst haben vor (+ dative): Ich habe Angst vor meiner Schwiegermutter → Ich habe Angst vor ihr. (not davor)

❓ How wo-compounds work

❓ Basic formation

Wo-compound: wo + preposition = question word asking "preposition + what"

• Works exactly like da-compounds but for questions.
• Example: wo + für = wofür (for what / what...for)
• The preposition becomes part of the question word.

🔤 Spelling rules for wo-compounds

• Consonant-starting prepositions: wo + mit = womit (with what)
• Vowel-starting prepositions: insert -r- (wo + an = woran, wo + über = worüber)

📋 Common wo-compounds

Preposition	Wo-compound	English
für	wofür	for what / what...for
mit	womit	with what
von	wovon	from/of what
an	woran	at/about what
auf	worauf	on what
über	worüber	about what

💭 Example questions

• Wovor hast du Angst? (What are you afraid of?)
• Wofür interessierst du dich? (What are you interested in?)
• Worüber beschwerst du dich? (What are you complaining about?)

🚫 People restriction for wo-compounds

🚫 Same rule applies

• Just like da-compounds, wo-compounds work only for things.
• Don't use them when asking about people.

👤 Use wen or wem instead

• For accusative: use wen (whom)
• For dative: use wem (to/for whom)
• Example: Auf wen wartest du? (For whom are you waiting?) — not worauf
• Example: Mit wem hast du gesprochen? (With whom did you speak?) — not womit

🎵 Cultural note

• The excerpt mentions the song Wofür by Silbermond, which demonstrates the difference between wofür (for what/things) and für wen (for whom/people).

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German forms present participles by adding –d to the infinitive and uses them as adjectives in front of nouns (never as standalone verb forms), requiring standard adjective endings just like any other adjective.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What present participles are: adjectives formed from verbs (infinitive + –d) that describe nouns, equivalent to English –ing adjectives (e.g., "rising sun," "flowing stream").
• How they work: present participles must appear in front of nouns and take normal adjective endings (–e, –en, –er, etc.) based on case, gender, and number.
• Common confusion: German does NOT use present participles as standalone predicates; "Die Sonne ist aufgehend" is wrong—use the present tense conjugation instead ("Die Sonne geht auf").
• Adjective ending review: the excerpt reminds learners that most students need extensive practice with adjective endings, which apply to participles just as they do to regular adjectives.

🔧 Forming present participles

🔧 The –d suffix rule

Present participles in German: infinitive + –d.

• Take any infinitive verb and add –d to create an adjective.
• Examples from the excerpt:
  • spielen + d = spielend
  • fließen + d = fließend
  • aufgehen + d = aufgehend
• These participles describe nouns, so they function as adjectives, not verbs.

📝 English equivalents

• In English, these correspond to adjectives ending in –ing:
  • "The rising sun" → die aufgehende Sonne
  • "A flowing stream" → ein fließender Bach
  • "The playing children" → die spielenden Kinder
• The excerpt notes that in English these may look like verbs, but because they describe nouns, they are adjectives.

🎯 Using present participles correctly

🎯 Placement: only in front of nouns

• Present participles must appear directly before the noun they modify.
• They cannot stand alone as predicates.
• Example: "Die spielenden Kinder haben uns nicht gehört." (The playing children didn't hear us.)

🔢 Adding adjective endings

• Because present participles are adjectives, they take the same endings as any other adjective.
• The ending depends on:
  • Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter)
  • Case (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive)
  • Number (singular, plural)
  • Preceding article type (definite, indefinite, or none)

Example	Participle base	Ending added	Why
Die spielenden Kinder	spielend	–en	Plural nominative after definite article
einen fließenden Bach	fließend	–en	Masculine accusative after indefinite article
Die aufgehende Sonne	aufgehend	–e	Feminine nominative after definite article

⚠️ The critical mistake: no standalone predicates

• WRONG: "Die Sonne ist aufgehend." (marked as FALSCH multiple times in the excerpt)
• RIGHT: "Die Sonne geht auf." (The sun rises / The sun is rising / The sun does rise.)
• Why: German does not have a separate verb + –ing construction for conjugating verbs; the present tense conjugation already includes the meaning of "is rising."
• The excerpt emphasizes this is "almost as bad as feeding a child to a crocodile"—a very serious error.

📚 Practice and review reminders

📚 Adjective endings practice

• The excerpt acknowledges that most students need to practice adjective endings "a LOT" to master them.
• Don't feel bad if you're not 100% on them yet—this is normal.
• The chart mentioned at the beginning (not shown in this excerpt) is a reference tool for reviewing all adjective endings.

📚 Integration with other grammar

• The excerpt includes a reminder (WIEDERHOLUNG) not to forget das Perfekt and das Präteritum.
• Present participles are part of a larger system of adjective usage, so they connect to other grammar topics.

📚 Exercise structure

• The excerpt includes an exercise (Ex. A: Adjektive) asking learners to describe pictures using participles as adjectives.
• Example provided: "Die tanzenden Kinder freuen sich." / "Die spielenden Kinder tanzen." / "Siehst du die tanzenden (spielenden) Kinder?"
• This reinforces the pattern: participle + ending + noun.

🔗 Connection to adjectival nouns (preview)

🔗 What adjectival nouns are

• The excerpt transitions to adjectival nouns at the end, noting that German uses adjectives as nouns more often than English.
• English examples: "The sick need good medical insurance." / "The poor have nothing to eat."
• German examples: "Die Kranken brauchen eine gute Krankenversicherung." / "Die Armen haben nichts zu essen."

🔗 How to form them

• To determine the correct article and ending, imagine the sentence with the actual noun, then remove the noun and capitalize the adjective.
• Example: "Die alte Frau isst jeden Tag in einem teuren Restaurant." → Remove "Frau" and capitalize "alte" → "Die Alte isst jeden Tag in einem teuren Restaurant."
• This creates a grammatically correct adjectival noun, though it may sound unnatural in English ("The old woman" vs. "The old").

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

German uses adjectival nouns—adjectives functioning as nouns—more frequently than English does, and they follow the same adjective-ending rules based on case, gender, and whether they follow definite or indefinite articles.

📌 Key points

• What adjectival nouns are: adjectives that substitute for nouns (e.g., "Die Alte" = "the old woman") without stating the actual noun.
• How to form them: create the sentence with the full noun, apply the correct adjective ending, then remove the noun and capitalize the adjective.
• Key rule: adjectival nouns follow the same adjective-ending patterns as regular adjectives—endings depend on case, gender, and article type (der-word vs. ein-word).
• Common confusion: the ending changes based on whether you use definite (der/die/das) or indefinite (ein/eine) articles, just like with regular adjectives.
• Practical tip: when uncertain about the ending, mentally insert the appropriate noun (Mann, Frau, Kind, Leute) to remind yourself of the correct adjective ending.

🔤 What adjectival nouns are

🔤 Definition and comparison

Adjectival nouns: adjectives that function as nouns, standing alone without the noun they would normally modify.

English examples (less common):

• "The sick need good medical insurance."
• "The poor have nothing to eat."

German examples (more common):

• "Die Kranken brauchen eine gute Krankenversicherung."
• "Die Armen haben nichts zu essen."

🌍 Frequency difference

• German uses this construction more often than English.
• Example: "Die Alte isst jeden Tag in einem teuren Restaurant" sounds natural in German but awkward in English ("The old eats every day...").

🔧 How to form adjectival nouns

🔧 The formation process

Step-by-step method:

1. Write the sentence with the full noun (e.g., "Die alte Frau isst...")
2. Apply the correct adjective ending based on case, gender, and article type
3. Remove the noun
4. Capitalize the adjective

Example transformation:

• Full sentence: "Die alte Frau isst jeden Tag in einem teuren Restaurant."
• Remove noun and capitalize: "Die Alte isst jeden Tag in einem teuren Restaurant."

❓ Determining gender and case

Question: How do you know which article (masculine, feminine, neuter) to use?

Answer: Imagine the actual person/thing that would be in the sentence, then leave it out.

• The gender and case come from the implied noun that has been removed.
• Example: if you mean "old woman," use feminine articles and endings; if you mean "old man," use masculine.

📋 Ending patterns by case and gender

📋 Nominative case examples

Article type	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Plural
Definite	Der Alte	Die Alte	Das Kleine	Die Kleinen
Indefinite	Ein Alter	Eine Alte	Ein Kleines	(unsere) Kleinen
Ending difference?	Yes (-e vs. -er)	No (both -e)	Yes (-e vs. -es)	No (both -en)

Why endings differ: der-words and ein-words have different endings in nominative masculine and neuter, but the same endings in feminine and plural.

Memory trick: Add back the noun (Mann, Frau, Kind, Kinder) to remind yourself: "der alte Mann" vs. "ein alter Mann."

📋 Accusative case examples

Neuter accusative:

• "Der Tod holte das Kleine" vs. "Der Tod holte ein Kleines"
• Different endings based on definite vs. indefinite article
• Memory trick: add "Kind" → "das kleine Kind" / "ein kleines Kind"

Masculine accusative:

• "Die Elefanten verprügeln den Armen" vs. "Die Elefanten verprügeln einen Armen"
• Same ending (-en) for both definite and indefinite
• Memory trick: add "Mann" → "den armen Mann" / "einen armen Mann"

📋 Dative and genitive cases

Good news: Everything in dative and genitive uses the -en ending, regardless of article type.

Feminine dative example:

• "Wir sprachen mit der Blinden" vs. "Wir sprachen mit einer Blinden"
• Both use -en ending
• Memory trick: add "Frau" → "mit der blinden Frau" / "mit einer blinden Frau"

🌐 Special categories

🌐 Nationalities as adjectival nouns

Some nationalities function as adjectival nouns:

Examples with "Deutsche" (German person):

• "Ein Deutscher sagte, 'Ist das Kunst, oder kann das weg?'"
• "Der Deutsche trägt im Sommer Sandalen mit Socken."
• "Es gibt eine Deutsche, die an unserer Uni studiert."
• "Frag doch mal die Deutschen, ob sie lieber Kaffee oder Tee zum Frühstück trinken."

Rule reminder: The ending depends on the implied noun (Mann, Frau, Leute) that would follow the adjective.

🌐 Common adjectival nouns

Frequently used examples:

• der/die Bekannte — acquaintance
• der/die Verwandte — relative
• der/die Deutsche — German person
• der/die Erwachsene — grownup
• der/die Jugendliche — youth

💡 Key strategy for success

💡 The "add back the noun" technique

When in doubt about endings:

1. Mentally insert the appropriate noun (Mann, Frau, Kind, Leute/Kinder)
2. Apply the adjective ending you would use with that noun
3. Remove the noun again, keeping the ending

This technique works because adjectival nouns follow exactly the same adjective-ending rules as regular adjectives—they're just a review of adjective endings that students often forget or mix up.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

This section teaches how to ask for and give directions in German using questions with accusative case, imperative commands (formal Sie, informal du, and group wir forms), and the construction "an … vorbei" for "past."

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Asking for directions: use "Ich suche + [place]" or "Gibt es hier + [place]?" with accusative case (masculine nouns add -en).
• Giving directions: use imperative forms—formal Sie-commands, informal du-commands, or wir-commands for group suggestions.
• Common confusion: masculine direct objects require an extra -en in accusative (e.g., "einen Supermarkt" not "ein Supermarkt").
• Special construction: "an … vorbei" means "past" (e.g., "Gehen Sie an 'Moes' vorbei" = "Go past 'Moes'").

🗣️ Asking for directions

🗣️ Two question patterns

The excerpt provides two ways to ask where something is:

• "Ich suche + [place]" = "I'm looking for [place]"
• "Gibt es hier + [place]?" = "Is there a [place] here?"

Example: "Ich suche die Apotheke." (I'm looking for the pharmacy.)

⚠️ Accusative case reminder

The direct object will go in the accusative case; masculine gets an extra -en.

• When you name the place you're looking for, it is the direct object.
• Masculine nouns add -en: "einen Supermarkt" (not "ein Supermarkt").
• Don't confuse: this -en applies only to masculine nouns in accusative; feminine and neuter stay the same.

🧭 Giving directions with imperatives

🧭 Formal Sie-commands

Use these when addressing someone formally:

• "Gehen Sie geradeaus." (Go straight ahead.)
• "Fahren Sie nach links." (Drive to the left.)
• "Laufen Sie in diese Richtung." (Run/walk in this direction.)

👤 Informal du-commands

If you know the person well, drop "Sie" and adjust the verb:

• "Geh geradeaus."
• "Fahr nach links."
• "Lauf in diese Richtung."

👥 Group wir-commands (suggestions)

To suggest a direction to your group of friends:

• "Gehen wir geradeaus." (Let's go straight ahead.)
• "Fahren wir nach links." (Let's drive to the left.)
• "Laufen wir in diese Richtung." (Let's run/walk in this direction.)

Form	When to use	Example
Sie-command	Formal address	Gehen Sie geradeaus
du-command	Informal, one person	Geh geradeaus
wir-command	Group suggestion	Gehen wir geradeaus

🚶 Telling someone to go past something

🚶 The "an … vorbei" construction

"an … vorbei" = "past"

• Use this to tell someone to go past a landmark.
• Example: "Gehen Sie an 'Moes' vorbei." (Go past "Moes.")
• The landmark goes between "an" and "vorbei."