Management Communication

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Developing strong communication skills—writing clearly, presenting ideas effectively, and connecting with others—makes you more valuable in business, more employable, more influential as a leader, and better connected in all areas of life.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Time investment: We spend approximately 70% of our waking hours communicating, making it a core life skill.
• Business writing style: Business communication must be concise, direct, clear, and compelling—tailored to busy, analytical, international, and decisive audiences.
• Employability advantage: Employers actively seek candidates with strong written and verbal communication skills; clear writing demonstrates clear thinking.
• Leadership multiplier: Communicating "powerfully and prolifically" enhances all other leadership competencies, including technical and strategic skills.
• Common confusion: Communication skills are not just for "soft" roles—they are essential across nearly every occupation and directly impact productivity and decision-making.

💼 Business writing essentials

💼 What business communication requires

Business communication is concise, direct, clear, and compelling.

• Business contexts demand efficiency: short emails, reports, presentations, and meetings all move information, define strategy, and drive decisions.
• The goal is not elaborate prose but clarity and action.
• Example: A complex report must still be direct enough that a busy executive can extract the key recommendation quickly.

📝 Plain language principles

• Plain language describes writing that is clear and concise without losing meaning.
• Many businesses and governments are revising traditionally dense text using these principles.
• The excerpt contrasts a "before" and "after" example from FEMA:
  • Before: "Timely preparation, including structural and non-structural mitigation measures to avoid the impacts of severe winter weather, can avert heavy personal, business and government expenditures."
  • After: "Severe winter weather can be extremely dangerous. Consider these safety tips to protect your property and yourself."
• The "after" version removes unnecessary words and jargon, making the message immediately understandable.

✂️ Eliminate unnecessary words

• A classic principle (from Strunk and White): "A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts."
• Every word should serve a purpose; trim anything that does not add meaning or clarity.

👥 Understanding your business audience

👥 Five audience characteristics

Characteristic	What it means	Implication for your writing
Busy	Readers want concise, no-nonsense information	Get to the point quickly; avoid long-winded explanations
Analytical	Readers want solid evidence and transparency	Provide data, reasoning, and clear sources
International	English is the global business language, but many readers are non-native speakers	Avoid idioms, slang, or culturally specific references that could confuse
Decisive	Business communication often leads to decisions	Offer well-reasoned recommendations, not just information
Critical	Decision makers are critical of time wasters	Give only pertinent, reliable, and easy-to-access information

🚫 Don't confuse audience needs

• "Busy" does not mean "uninterested in detail"—it means readers want relevant detail presented efficiently.
• "International" does not mean "simplistic"—it means avoiding language that creates misunderstandings for non-native speakers.

🎯 Communication skills and employability

🎯 What employers are looking for

• A 2020 survey (National Association of Colleges and Employers) shows that written and verbal communication skills are in the top seven attributes employers seek when hiring new college graduates.
• The top responses (in order of importance):
  1. Communication Skills (Verbal) – 91.2%
  2. Leadership – 86.3%
  3. Communication Skills (Written) – 80.4%
  4. Ability to Work in a Team – 79.4%
  5. Problem-Solving Skills – 77.5%
  6. Analytical/Quantitative Skills – 72.5%
  7. Strong Work Ethic – 69.6%

📈 Why writing skills matter in hiring

• Employers are "hungry" for people with communication and leadership skills.
• Job market research firm Burning Glass reports: "Writing, communication skills, and organizational skills are scarce everywhere. These skills are in demand across nearly every occupation—and in nearly every occupation they're being requested far more than you'd expect based on standard job profiles."
• Clear writing demonstrates clear thinking: Employers use writing ability as a proxy for analytical ability and clarity of thought.
• Jason Fried (founder of Basecamp) advises: "If you are trying to decide among a few people to fill a position, hire the best writer... Clear writing is a sign of clear thinking. Great writers know how to communicate. They make things easy to understand. They can put themselves in someone else's shoes. They know what to omit."

💡 The productivity cost of bad writing

• A Harvard Business Review article ("Bad Writing is Destroying Your Company's Productivity") highlights that poor communication wastes time and reduces organizational effectiveness.
• Example: If a report is unclear, colleagues must spend extra time asking for clarification, delaying decisions and action.

🌟 Communication as a leadership skill

🌟 How communication enhances leadership

• Researchers Zenger and Folkman (in The Extraordinary Leader) report that communicating "powerfully and prolifically" enhances all leadership competencies, including seemingly unrelated ones like technical competence or strategic development.
• Powerful communication is both a skill and a habit that amplifies other skills.

🔧 What leaders do with communication

• Learn from people: Listening and asking questions to gather insights.
• Coordinate efforts: Aligning team members toward shared goals.
• Share knowledge: Making information accessible and understandable.
• Communicate high standards: Setting clear expectations.
• Inspire: Motivating others through vision and encouragement.

⚠️ The cost of poor communication skills

• If you leave college unable to pitch a new idea, persuade an investor, or clarify data for a client, your influence will be "blunted" and much of your effort "wasted."
• Technical knowledge alone is insufficient; you must be able to communicate that knowledge to have impact.
• Bill Gates (in Time Magazine): "Power comes not from knowledge kept but from knowledge shared."

🤝 Staying connected through communication

🤝 Communication in all areas of life

• Human connection is valuable to health, safety, peace, and success.
• Good business communication skills transfer to every context:
  • Relationships: "You look upset. Want to talk about it?"
  • Neighborhood: "Empty lot cleanup party this Saturday at 10 a.m. Bring a rake. Donuts provided!"
  • Colleagues: "Does everyone understand the new reporting policy?"
  • City/civic engagement: "The new bond is an essential tool for improving our transit system for the following three reasons..."

🧩 What good communication involves

• Understanding another's point of view.
• Delivering bad news clearly but diplomatically.
• Maintaining trust through ethical and honest messaging.
• Using language to encourage and motivate a team.

🌍 Why connection matters

• We spend the majority of our waking time in communication activities, driven to connect—and stay connected—with other people.
• Communication skills help you "live well, understand others, stay connected, and accomplish your goals."

🎓 Conclusion and course value

🎓 What you will learn

• The course teaches how to communicate your best ideas to your most important audiences.
• Four main outcomes:
  1. Write for Business: Clear and concise writing gets noticed and leads to action.
  2. Be a Top Hire: Demonstrated communication skills improve job prospects.
  3. Become a Leader: Effective communication skills help you lead.
  4. Stay Connected: Appropriate communication helps you stay connected in networks and relationships.

🚀 Why this course is useful

• Alumni testimonials emphasize real-world application:
  • James Clarke (Founder of Clearlink): "Management Communication was one of the toughest classes of my undergrad, but I learned lessons I use every day in business."
  • Eric Farr (Principal at BrainStorm): "The majority of business communication today happens through email and social platforms, so I'm ever grateful for the critical business writing foundation... I would recommend it to anyone."
• The course prepares you to manage projects and people, design great-looking documents, and present ideas clearly and confidently.

🎯 The big picture

• By practicing concise and direct communication, you become:
  • More effective in business.
  • A more sought-after hire.
  • A more influential leader.
  • A more connected human being.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Business writing must follow both grammar rules and style guidelines to avoid costly mistakes, and mastering 22 common fundamentals helps writers produce clear, error-free communication.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why correctness matters: simple writing mistakes can embarrass individuals and cost companies real money (e.g., the "million-dollar comma" case).
• Two types of fundamentals: grammar rules (definitive right/wrong based on language structure) vs. style guidelines (recommended practices that vary by organization).
• Common confusion: grammar rules vs. style—grammar has clear answers and evolves slowly (e.g., singular "they"), while style reflects organizational preferences.
• Practical approach: the 22 fundamentals were selected by analyzing the most common student mistakes, not comprehensively but pragmatically.
• Responsibility shift: this may be the last structured opportunity to learn strong, error-free writing.

📝 Why business writing correctness matters

💰 Real consequences of mistakes

• The excerpt references a New York Times article about a "million-dollar comma," illustrating that punctuation errors can have significant financial impact.
• Simple mistakes create two types of harm:
  • Personal embarrassment for the writer
  • Real monetary costs for the company
• Example: An ambiguous comma in a contract could change its legal meaning and cost millions in disputes or settlements.

🎯 The standard for business writing

When you write for business, write correctly.

• Business contexts demand higher accuracy than casual communication.
• Errors undermine credibility and professionalism.

🔧 Two categories of writing fundamentals

📐 Grammar rules

Grammar rules: rules that govern how sentences are constructed in the English language.

• These have "fairly definitive right and wrong answers."
• Based on the structural rules of English.
• Grammar rules do evolve over time.
• Example from excerpt: the recent acceptance of singular "they" by some media outlets shows that even grammar rules can change, though they remain relatively stable.

📋 Style guidelines

Style guidelines: preferred constructions that, while not based on grammar rules, represent recommended practice.

• Not about correctness in the grammatical sense, but about following organizational conventions.
• Many organizations maintain their own style guides with specific do's and don'ts.
• Don't confuse: style guidelines are context-dependent (vary by employer), while grammar rules are more universal to the language.

🏢 Following organizational standards

• Always follow your employer's style guide if one is available.
• Style preferences override general recommendations when working for a specific organization.
• The course materials (sections 2A–2C) serve as a basic in-class style guide.

📚 The 22 fundamentals framework

🎯 Pragmatic selection method

• The 22 fundamentals were chosen by:
  • Counting mistakes in a large sample of student papers
  • Categorizing the most common errors
• The approach is explicitly "neither comprehensive nor random, but pragmatic."
• Goal: help writers avoid the most common pitfalls rather than cover every possible rule.

🗂️ Organization of fundamentals

The 22 fundamentals are divided into three sections:

Section	Topic	Fundamentals
2A	Syntax and Word Choice	Fundamentals 1-9
2B	Punctuation Plus	Fundamentals 10-16
2C	Verbs	Fundamentals 17-22

📖 Learning responsibility

• Students are responsible for learning and applying all 22 fundamentals.
• Each fundamental is labeled as either a grammar rule or style guideline (for informational purposes; memorization of categories not required).
• Links marked with a blue eyeball icon are required reading and may appear on tests.

🎓 Learning context and expectations

⏰ Last opportunity framing

This may be your last chance to learn to produce strong, clear writing without errors.

• The course positions itself as a final structured learning opportunity for writing skills.
• Acknowledges varying preparation levels: "If you were blessed with an amazing English teacher, this content may come easily. If you weren't that lucky, you'll have to work harder."

🔗 Access and resources

• Quick access link provided: bit.ly/mcom320fundamentals
• Supporting videos and online resources available for clarification and practice.
• The curriculum aims to make learning "relatively painless."

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective business communication requires planning your message through four steps—defining purpose, considering audience, developing strategy, and building structure—before you begin writing.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• The PASS framework: Purpose, Audience, Strategy, Structure—four planning steps that prevent rambling, confusing messages.
• Purpose clarity: Define what you want your audience to know, feel, and do; condense this into a single-sentence message statement.
• Audience awareness: Write with self-interest in mind—show readers why your message matters to them and test for the "curse of knowledge."
• Strategic choices: Select the right communication channel (email, face-to-face, text) and timing; consider emotional appeal (pathos) alongside logic (logos) and credibility (ethos).
• Common confusion: Planning is not optional even for short messages—skipping planning wastes your audience's time and signals incompetence.

📝 The PASS planning framework

📝 What PASS stands for

The excerpt introduces a four-step acronym for planning any business message:

1. Define your PURPOSE
2. Consider your AUDIENCE
3. Develop a STRATEGY
4. Build a STRUCTURE

• Without a plan, writing becomes frustrating and produces rambling presentations or confusing emails.
• Even short or rushed messages benefit from planning—it saves your audience's time.
• Don't confuse: planning is not "extra work for long documents only"; it applies to every message.

🎯 Purpose: Know what you want

🎯 Three purpose-defining questions

Before composing, answer:

• Information: What do I want the audience to know?
• Feeling: What emotion do I want to convey?
• Action: What do I want the audience to do?

Example: If employees are not documenting expenses properly, you might want them to (1) understand the new invoice protocol, (2) feel encouraged to be conscientious, and (3) submit detailed expense explanations.

✍️ The message statement

A message statement: "a single sentence" that concisely states your complete message; "the simpler and shorter, the better."

• Condensing your thoughts into one short sentence clarifies your purpose.
• Example of a weak statement: "In this memo I want to explain to everyone what is meant by casual dress... to see what people think and try to get them to follow it."
• Example of a strong statement: "I want to explain our company's new 'business casual' dress code and get employees to comply with it."

👥 Audience: Write for readers, not yourself

👥 Three audience questions

Ask yourself:

• KNOW: What does my audience already know? How will I make it relevant? Do they know my qualifications?
• FEEL: Will they have positive, negative, or neutral feelings? How should I address those feelings?
• DO: What action should they take? How will I motivate them?

🎁 Self-interest and relevance

• Everyone operates on "what's in it for me"—your first goal is to show why your message matters to them.
• People have time and resource constraints; make relevance clear immediately.

🖼️ Picture your audience

• Create a mental picture of your reader before writing.
• Example: Warren Buffett writes Berkshire Hathaway's annual report imagining his sisters as the audience, which helps him avoid jargon and use plain English.
• If writing to a colleague, he would adjust for shared knowledge.
• Don't confuse: the same information requires different approaches depending on the audience's background.

🧠 The curse of knowledge

The Curse of Knowledge: what is obvious to you because of your background, education, and training might not be obvious to your audience.

• Test whether your audience understands your terms and connections.
• Don't oversimplify, but supply information at your audience's level.
• Have someone with a similar background to your audience read your message.

🔒 Secondary audiences and privacy

• Even "secure" emails can be hacked or go viral—write as if anyone might read your message.
• Example: Sony executives' emails were hacked, revealing unprofessionalism and hurting the company's image.
• Compose emails with the widest possible readership in mind; plan carefully and write consciously.

🎭 Strategy: Choose how to persuade

🎭 Three rhetorical strategies (Aristotle)

The excerpt introduces three strategies that remain relevant after 2,000 years:

Strategy	Meaning	Application
Ethos	Credibility, trust	Know the facts; demonstrate your qualifications
Logos	Logic, reason, proof	Use analytical arguments supported by data
Pathos	Emotion, values	Appeal to feelings; emotions often precede and influence how we process facts

• Don't confuse: emotional appeal does not mean abandoning facts and logic—the excerpt emphasizes that emotions are "pre-cognitive" and influence decision-making.
• Remember to think through what you want the audience to know, feel, and do.

📡 Communication channel selection

Choose the channel (paper, email, in-person, text, formal report) that best supports your content and appeals to your audience.

Different channels involve different:

• Costs
• Speeds of delivery
• Non-verbal and non-written cues (voice inflection, body language)

Channel	Strengths	Limitations
Face-to-face	Rich verbal and non-verbal communication	No permanence
Email	Efficient	No personal touch or urgency
Handwritten note	Personal touch	Slower
Text message	Urgent	Less formal
Formal report	Packages information well	Takes more time

• Note the preferred channels of your key contacts—message people where they are paying attention.

⏰ Timing and pacing

• When: What time of day should you send that email or deliver that report?
• Pacing: Introduce vital information right away for directness; deliver bad news with more context and less directness.
• Why emphasis: You have seconds to capture attention—emphasize why the audience needs to read your message.
• Be concise: If you take too much time, the audience will move on to another matter.

🌍 Context awareness

Be aware of the context—what professional pressures, industry problems, personal biases, or internal/external factors may shape how your message is received.

• Context is "like the weather for an event; it affects everything and can't be ignored."

🌐 International audiences

When doing business with people from another country, research their expectations for business behavior and communication.

• Example cultural notes: In Japan, never point with chopsticks during a meal; in Russia, avoid raising your voice (it's a sign of weakness); in the Middle East, don't show the soles of your feet (it's disrespectful).

🏗️ Structure: Build clear frameworks

🏗️ Why structure matters

• The human brain is wired to look for order, patterns, and structure.
• Chaotic and poorly structured messages quickly lose a reader's respect and interest.
• Build clear frameworks into your writing to make the brain's preference for order work for you.

🧱 The organizing principle

An unorganized message causes your reader to waste time trying to understand it.

• In business, a jumbled stream of thoughts carries a meta-message that you're incompetent.
• Rambling messages can cost your company clients, tarnish its image, and result in direct financial losses.
• The excerpt notes that the average office employee spends 1.8 hours per day searching for information—organization saves time.

📋 What comes next

The excerpt indicates that detailed structure techniques (outlining and the "4A structure" template) are covered in Chapter 4: Organize, which follows this planning chapter.

💡 Key takeaway

💡 Planning is worth the effort

The PASS steps require work, but the process is worth it.

• Being aware of Purpose, Audience, Strategy, and Structure as you plan will turn "mushy, untidy, and costly messages into sharp and effective ones."
• Plan well before you write.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Organizing business communication through outlining and the 4A structure (Attention, Agenda, Argument, Action) makes messages clearer, faster to understand, and more memorable while preventing the chaos that signals incompetence.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why organization matters: Jumbled messages waste time, signal incompetence, and can cost companies clients; organized information is understood more quickly and remembered up to 40% better.
• Three outlining approaches: top-down (when you know your structure), mind mapping (for visual/associative thinking), and bottom-up (to create order from chaos).
• The 4A structure template: Attention (hook), Agenda (preview), Argument (main points with evidence), Action (call to action/next steps).
• Common confusion: Don't start writing before outlining—digital word processing tempts us to "spew words and rearrange," but thinking first produces smarter, more powerful messages.
• Rule of Three: Our brains prefer groups of three; narrow your focus to three main points to force clear reasoning before writing.

📐 Why structure matters in business

📐 The cost of chaos

• Chaos in communication creates the same frustration as searching through a junk drawer or unlabeled boxes.
• The average office employee spends 1.8 hours per day searching for information.
• A jumbled message carries a meta-message: "I am incompetent."

💼 Business consequences

• Rambling messages limit career prospects.
• Disorganized communication can cost companies clients or tarnish their image, resulting in direct financial losses.
• Example: A voicemail, report, or email that streams thoughts without structure signals the sender is thoughtless and unprepared rather than smart and capable.

🧠 Cognitive benefits

Organized information is understood more quickly and remembered up to 40% better.

• When your audience knows what to expect, communication works better.
• An unorganized message forces the reader to waste time trying to understand it.

🗂️ Three outlining approaches

🔝 Top-down approach: discipline your structure

When to use: When you already know the main subtopics to address.

• Works well when you have a clear idea of what you want to say.
• Uses alphanumeric format: Roman numerals for major sections, letters for subsections, Arabic numerals for sub-subsections.
• Allows you to logically order ideas and provide sufficient support for each.
• Example structure for a sales presentation:
  • I. Introduction (build rapport, state purpose)
  • II. Customer needs (identify job to be done, competitor gaps)
  • III. Product (performance, features, advantages)
  • IV. Summary and call to action

🎨 Mind mapping: associate visually

When to use: When you want to visually explore multiple aspects or if you're a visual thinker.

The process:

1. Write the main idea in the center of a blank page (gives room to branch out).
2. Identify subcategories and assign each a single keyword (forces clear, concise thinking).
3. Draw curved branches from the central image with labels for subcategories; use color.
4. Expand subcategories with more branches and keywords.
5. Add images to branches if you're visual (pictures capture ideas more succinctly than words).

Don't confuse: Straight lines feel mechanical; curved lines feel organic—you want the map to feel like a living organism.

🔨 Bottom-up approach: create order from chaos

When to use: When you have information but need structure and direction; excellent antidote for writer's block.

Three steps:

1. Brainstorm: Write down whatever comes to mind—facts, keywords, concepts, stories, analogies, diagrams. Don't hold back.
2. Cluster: Look for patterns; group related items together; make clusters of meaning; stay open to unusual associations.
3. Sequence: Look at your clusters and order them to build meaning; pay attention to logical progression; ensure your audience has adequate information at each step.

Example: For a project reporting email, brainstormed items get clustered into Opening, Project Status, Resources, and Closing, then sequenced logically.

🧩 Organizing principles and techniques

🧩 The Rule of Three

• Start with three main points, whether writing a long report or short email.
• Narrowing focus forces you to reason before you write.
• Our brains innately prefer groups of three.
• Author Bryan Garner (HBR Guide to Better Business Writing) recommends this approach.

📖 Tell a story

The oldest and most satisfying structure is a story.

For longer pieces or presentations:

• Beginning: Set the scene.
• Middle: Build interest and tension by showing a problem, need, or pain; add conflict.
• End: Resolve with your insights and clear thinking; reach climax and resolution.

🗺️ Six sequencing options

Choose the right sequence based on your purpose:

Sequence	Description	Best for
Chronological	What happened first, second, etc.	Time-based narratives
Spatial	Physical placement/location	Geographic or layout-based topics
Comparative	Pros and cons of options	Evaluating alternatives
Analytical	Steps of critical thinking; answering "whys"	Deep reasoning, addressing audience questions
Importance	Least to most important (or vice versa)	Prioritizing factors for decision-making
Cause-and-effect	How causes interact with effects	Problem-solution scenarios

Example: For recommending a new office computer, comparative or importance sequencing would work best; chronological (which you researched first) would not.

🏷️ Convert outlines into headings

• Headings organize your message and serve as "sign posts."
• Make reviewing and finding information quick and easy.
• Use your outline to write headings; tighten key phrases; ensure parallel structure.
• Most word processors can automatically convert outlines into heading hierarchies.

🎯 The 4A structure template

🎯 Overview of 4A

The four A's modify the traditional introduction-body-conclusion essay structure to be business- and brain-friendly:

Attention | Agenda | Argument | Action

This structure applies to nearly all business communications.

🪝 Attention: hook your audience

Purpose: Answer "Why should your audience spend precious time on this message?"

• Open with a compelling statistic, descriptive metaphor, relevant story, or penetrating question.
• Keep it brief.
• In a short email, give key context details that motivate attention.

📋 Agenda: preview your message

Purpose: "Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em."

• Preview the body of your message—usually in one sentence.
• Prepares the reader for the main points you're going to make.
• This concept is crucial to business communication.

💪 Argument: deliver your main points

Purpose: The meat of your message.

• Include your main points supported by solid evidence and logic.
• Keep the Rule of Three in mind: don't exceed three supporting points.
• Make your argument simple and memorable.

🚀 Action: call to action

Purpose: Identify next steps.

• Business communication often ends with a call to action.
• Your closing should not only summarize but also let your audience know what you'd like them to do based on the information you've shared.
• If appropriate, identify next steps.

🔑 Key takeaways

🔑 The organizing workflow

1. Before writing: Create an outline (top-down, mind map, or bottom-up).
2. Frame first: Like building a house, construct the bare bones structure before detailing.
3. Think first: Outlining forces you to do your thinking before writing, producing smarter messages.
4. Apply 4A: Use the Attention-Agenda-Argument-Action structure to guide composition.

🔑 What to avoid

• Don't start by "spewing words onto the screen and rearranging them"—this produces long, unorganized messages.
• Don't leave your audience wandering hopelessly around in your message.
• Don't forget: the work of organizing begins long before you put words on a page, screen, or slide.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Breaking messages into well-structured paragraphs with clear topic sentences, supporting details, smooth transitions, and appropriate white space makes business writing—especially email—more inviting, readable, and actionable.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Paragraph length: aim for 3–5 sentences to avoid walls of text; use white space to make messages inviting.
• Show, don't tell: move from general to specific with concrete, evidence-based details rather than vague claims.
• Topic sentences and transitions: guide readers through your argument so they can skim and still understand your message.
• Email structure: apply the 4A's (Attention, Agenda, Argument, Action) to organize short, direct business emails.
• Common confusion: balance between too much and too little detail—use hyperlinks or attachments for specifics without overwhelming the reader.

📝 Building strong paragraphs

📏 Optimal paragraph length

• Most paragraphs should contain 3 to 5 sentences.
• Occasionally use a single-sentence paragraph for emphasis.
• Sometimes a longer paragraph is needed to complete a thought.
• Short paragraphs highlighted by headings, guided by transitions, and framed by white space make messages more inviting.
• Why it matters: readers dislike solid walls of text because long paragraphs seem to demand too much time and effort.

🎯 Start with topic sentences

Topic sentence: the first sentence in each paragraph that introduces the topic and informs the reader of the paragraph's purpose.

• Topic sentences provide a framework for your paragraph and deliver content on a unified theme.
• Write them clearly so busy readers can get the gist of your argument by skimming just the topic sentence of each paragraph.
• Example: Instead of burying your point, lead with it so readers immediately understand what the paragraph will cover.

🔍 Show, don't tell

📊 Supply supporting details

• Advance from the general to the specific—both within paragraphs and from paragraph to paragraph.
• Concrete, specific details give your claims (and you) credibility.
• As Bryan Garner asserts: "People don't care about—or even remember—abstractions the way they do specifics."

❌ Telling vs. ✅ Showing

Telling (vague)	Showing (specific)
She's not a good employee.	She missed the last four employee meetings, showed up late for two client meetings, and lost key sales data.
Our sales team is doing great.	Our team made 35% more sales this quarter than during the third quarter last year.
There are not enough funds for pay raises.	Our analysis shows that we need to increase productivity by 8% or reduce expenses by 3% to afford a pay raise of 5%.
The retail industry is not what it used to be.	Traditional retailers struggle to compete with the wide margins and low overhead of online retailers. Supporting detail: Seventy-one percent of shoppers believe they will get a better deal online than in stores.

• How to apply: carefully select evidence-based details that lead your audience to draw the conclusions you want them to make.
• Don't confuse: stating a conclusion is not the same as providing the evidence that supports it.

🔗 Make smooth transitions

🌉 What transitions do

• Transition words and phrases guide readers from paragraph to paragraph in a document and from point to point within paragraphs.
• When used well, transitions don't call attention to themselves.

🛠️ Transition examples by purpose

Purpose	Example
Establish a sequence	At first, consumers are hesitant to buy online, but after just a few online shopping experiences, they seem to prefer online shopping.
Set up a contrast	And yet, nothing can quite replace the experience of traditional shopping.
Provide an example	For example, online shopping carts do not lead to online dressing rooms.
Add a point	Processing returns also feels inconvenient and expensive for most shoppers.
Concede a point	Even though returning online merchandise is easier than it has been in the past, packaging items for mailing and paying for shipping still feels burdensome.
Conclude	On the whole, consumers are shifting to online shopping with increasing loyalty.

• Awkward transition: "And thus we can deduce that online sales play an important role in the retail industry."
• Smooth transition: "Clearly, online sales play an important role in the retail industry."

📧 Applying principles to email

📬 Email structure basics

• Most email messages are short and direct.
• Follow the 4A's to grab readers' attention, structure your content, and close your email message:
  • Capture your audience's ATTENTION
  • Specify your AGENDA
  • Craft a strong ARGUMENT
  • Deliver your call to ACTION
• Never send an email before proofreading it.

📐 Use paragraphs in email

• Break up walls of text into separate paragraphs.
• Divide meaning into sections to make email more visually appealing.
• Example: An email with one long block of text is uninviting; the same content broken into 3–4 short paragraphs is much easier to read.

🎨 Use visual signposts and topic sentences

Visual signposts catch the reader's eye:

• Bold text for key points
• Bullet lists for multiple items
• Indents to highlight important information

Topic sentences help readers understand your message even if they simply skim your email.

Example structure:

• "Here's a quick report on the June 12 meeting that you missed:"
• CLIENTS – New clients are up slightly...
• AUDIT – The audit drags on but is projected to finish by August...
• CX INITIATIVE – Using Twitter as a customer response tool has increased interaction...

📎 Include the right amount of supporting information

• Support your ideas, but find the balance between giving enough and too much information.
• You don't want to overburden your reader, but you need to be credible.
• Use hyperlinks or attachments to provide more specific details without cluttering the email body.
• Don't confuse: providing every detail in the email body vs. summarizing key points and linking to full documentation.

Example: Instead of listing all research details in the email, attach a spreadsheet and summarize the key findings in the message.

🔄 Use transitions in email

• Transitions help your audience follow the path through your email and understand the relationship between your paragraphs.
• Example transitions in context:
  • "In an effort to keep up the momentum, I want to review..."
  • "Before answering the phone, smile... After greeting callers, listen carefully..."
  • "As you demonstrated last month, YOU are the ones who make the biggest difference..."

💡 Modern business communication tips

😊 Emoji and exclamation points

• In your first professional emails, don't use emoji.
• Acceptable use is still evolving, and you can't be sure how your recipient will react.
• If your correspondent uses them freely, you can respond in kind.
• Be friendly, but don't gush: give yourself a budget of ONE exclamation point per email.
• Use emoji sparingly—too many make you look immature and overeager.

💬 Texting for business

• Texting is becoming more common in business.
• Generally, save texting at work only for quick questions or reminders.
• Information you may need to reference again is best conveyed via email.
• Key reminders: don't text bad news or sensitive/privileged information.

🎬 GIFs in professional communication

• Communicating with funny internet GIFs is classic office fun, but be wary of using them in more traditional workplaces.
• However, the use of GIFs and other visuals is increasing—organizations like General Electric and Disney now have official collections.
• You might create a GIF to illustrate an office process or demonstrate a trend.

🎯 Key takeaway

📋 Build deliberately

Create paragraphs deliberately by using:

• Strong topic sentences that introduce each paragraph's purpose
• Meaning-clarifying transitions that guide readers through your logic
• Just the right amount of detail to be credible without overwhelming

When you use paragraphs to write strong emails and reports, your messages are more likely to be read... and acted upon.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective business decisions require evidence-based research—both primary and secondary—that is carefully evaluated, properly documented, and ethically sourced to build credibility and support recommendations.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Primary vs. secondary research: Primary creates new data (surveys, experiments); secondary uses existing information (articles, reports, databases).
• Where to search: Scholarly journals provide peer-reviewed foundations; news sources offer current trends; trade publications give industry-specific insight; government and association data supply statistics.
• Evaluating credibility: Use the CRAP test (Currency, Reliability, Authority, Purpose/Point of View) to judge whether a source strengthens or undermines your argument.
• Common confusion: Fair use for educational purposes vs. professional use—habits formed in college may not protect you in business contexts.
• Why documentation matters: Proper citation gives credit, builds your credibility, and avoids plagiarism; failure to document is unethical and potentially illegal.

🔬 Types of research

🔬 Primary research

Primary research: creating or gathering new information through surveys, experiments, sales reports, or other original data collection.

• What it offers: tailored to your specific need; you own the results.
• Trade-offs: slower and more expensive than secondary research; may require specialized expertise.
• Example: conducting a customer satisfaction survey to understand your specific product's performance.

📚 Secondary research

Secondary research: accessing information that already exists through analyst reports, scholarly articles, news sources, or government databases.

• What it offers: faster and less expensive; can save time and money by building on what's already discovered.
• Trade-offs: may have copyright or licensing restrictions; not customized to your exact needs.
• Example: consulting an industry analyst's report on market trends before designing your own study.

🔢 Quantitative vs. qualitative approaches

Type	What it measures	Example
Quantitative	Numerical data using standardized methods	Rating scales, return visit counts, correlation analysis
Qualitative	Opinions, feelings, experiences that can't be easily quantified	Focus groups discussing desired product features

⚖️ Research quality standards

• Reliability: does the method produce consistent results when repeated?
• Validity: does it actually measure what it's intended to measure?
• Transferability: can results be generalized to other contexts?
• Don't confuse: a study can be reliable (consistent) but not valid (measuring the wrong thing).

🔍 Finding secondary sources

🔍 Strategic search thinking

Ask yourself: "Who would be interested in gathering this information, and how can I find out if they make it available?"

Example from the excerpt: to research winter sports markets, consider:

• Trade associations (SnowSports Industries America, Utah Ski & Snowboard Association)
• Government agencies (Utah state government tracking tourism data)
• News sources and industry newsletters

📊 Three main source categories

Scholarly journals

• Peer-reviewed by experts in the discipline
• Slower process but higher reliability and authority
• Use these to establish a strong foundation
• Examples: Academy of Management Review, Journal of Consumer Psychology

News sources and magazines

• Most current information on topics
• Shows how popular opinion is trending
• Examples: Wall Street Journal, The Economist, Harvard Business Review

Trade and industry sources

• Written by and for practicing professionals
• Current and authoritative for specific industries
• Provides models for industry writing style
• Examples: Advertising Age, The Progressive Grocer

🌐 The web as an iceberg

The excerpt describes three layers:

• Surface web: Wikipedia, Google, Bing (freely accessible)
• Deep web: subscription databases, medical records, legal documents, organization-specific repositories, conference resources (requires access)
• Dark web: encrypted sites, illegal information (not relevant for business research)

Key insight: Your library provides access to deep-web databases (EBSCO, ProQuest, LexisNexis) that aren't freely available on the internet.

🎯 Search strategies

🎯 Boolean operators

These operators precisely manipulate search results in library databases:

Operator	Effect	Visual logic
AND	Only results including both concepts	Narrower (intersection)
OR	Results with any one of your terms	Broader (union)
NOT	Excludes results with that term	Narrower (exclusion)

Example: "Ski Utah AND" returns only results with both concepts; "Ski Utah OR" accepts results with either.

🔧 Advanced database operators

Operator	Effect	Example
*	Truncation: any word with that beginning	ski* → ski, skis, skiing, skier
?	Wildcard for single character	wom?n → women or woman
" "	Exact phrase only	"Park City"
( )	Nesting: compartmentalizes operator effects	("Park City" OR Solitude) AND ski*
nearX	Terms within X words of each other	ski* near5 Utah
atleastX	Term appears at least X times	atleast3 ski* AND Utah

🔄 When searches fail

Too many results? Narrow by:

• Adding more specific concepts
• Filtering by date, peer-review status, or subject tags

Too few results? Broaden by:

• Adding synonyms
• Conducting separate searches for each concept (you may be breaking new ground)

Practical tips:

• Skim results for different wording to use in your next search
• Check bibliographies of relevant sources to follow citations
• Ask a librarian—save yourself an hour's frustration with five minutes of help

✅ Evaluating sources: The CRAP test

✅ What the CRAP test measures

CRAP test: a framework for assessing Currency, Reliability, Authority, and Purpose/Point of View to judge whether citing a source will strengthen or undermine your position.

Why it matters: The excerpt cites Stanford research showing 80% of middle school students mistake ads for real news, and less than 1/3 of college students recognize political bias in tweets—we're not as good at judging credibility as we think.

📅 Currency

• How recently was it published or updated?
• How current are its sources and content?

🔒 Reliability

• Is information organized, written, and presented well?
• Are sources cited and easily verifiable?
• Do conclusions follow from the evidence?
• What does the domain (.com, .edu, .gov, .org) suggest about reliability?

👤 Authority

• Who are the authors and what are their credentials?
• Have they been cited by other sources on the topic?
• Can they be contacted?

🎯 Purpose/Point of view

• What is the author's purpose?
• Is it written at a popular, professional, or professorial level?
• Is the author/organization values-driven or mission-driven (potential political, cultural, ideological bias)?
• Is the author/organization profit-driven?
• How does this affect the source's usefulness?

🚫 Don't cherry-pick

The excerpt warns: "Don't just cherry-pick sources that seem to support your argument." Evaluate carefully so you can speak intelligently when your audience has questions.

Balance principle: Don't ignore conflicting research—your audience will likely find it anyway. Address it upfront and show why your recommendation should still be followed.

📖 Wikipedia caution

• Good starting point for basic understanding
• Well-written entries include references to credible sources
• But: derivative by nature; can't evaluate contributor authority or purpose
• Use it to find original sources, not as a citation itself

📝 Documenting sources

📝 Why documentation matters

Thorough documentation:

• Gives credit to the original author
• Gives your work credibility that can't be achieved any other way
• Protects you from plagiarism accusations

🔗 Citation mechanics

Formal citations: Cite at point of impact using:

• Parenthetical author-date reference: (Richardson, 2017)
• Superscript number referring to footnotes/endnotes: sentence.³

Follow established styles: APA, Chicago, MLA, or HBS Style (Harvard Business School Citation Guide). If your organization has a house style, follow that instead.

Less formal documents: Provide clearly labeled links (like this textbook does).

Helpful resources: Purdue OWL has guides for all major citation styles; reference generators like CiteThisForMe are easy but results must be double-checked.

🧩 Integrating sources

Three methods to weave evidence into your writing:

Quote (exact words):

• Holmgren and McCracken warn against "making pricing decisions independent of the other players in the market."¹

Paraphrase (restate in your own words):

• When setting prices, ski resorts must consider competitors' prices since, as Holmgren and McCracken show, skiers are willing to substitute one resort for another.¹

Summarize (condense main ideas):

• Holmgren and McCracken demonstrate how the close proximity of Utah ski resorts increases price sensitivity for skiers.¹ Because skiers shop for the cheapest lift tickets, a resort must consider its competitors' prices when setting its own.

Critical skill: Learn to integrate sources properly to avoid accidental plagiarism.

For links: Provide meaningful information, not just "click here."

⚠️ Plagiarism and copyright

⚠️ What constitutes plagiarism

Plagiarism: failure to properly document sources, whether intentional or accidental; unethical and possibly illegal.

Even if you cite sources, failing to clearly distinguish between your own words and your source's words is plagiarism—no matter if you rearrange or change some of the words.

Consequences: Your reputation and peace of mind are at stake; the more successful you become, the more closely your every word will be watched (the excerpt references a CNN article about politicians called out for copying).

📜 Fair use doctrine

Fair use: the legal doctrine that allows you to quote copyrighted material in your research.

Section 107 of the Copyright Act provides four factors to determine fair use:

1. Purpose of use: Non-commercial, educational, or "transformative" use (criticism, parody, news reporting, teaching, scholarship) more likely qualifies
2. Nature of original work: Use of creative or unpublished works less likely qualifies
3. Amount used: Using significant portions less likely qualifies
4. Market effect: Use that hurts the market for the original unlikely to qualify

🎓 Educational vs. professional context

Critical warning: During college, you may feel your use qualifies as fair since it's educational. Whether it does or not, that excuse ends abruptly when you are employed. Develop good habits now and save yourself and your company a costly mistake.

Copyright awareness: Don't violate copyright by distributing documents or using images without proper permission.

🎯 Conclusion: Building credibility

🎯 Evidence-based decisions

The excerpt opens with the New Coke disaster of 1985—Coca-Cola threw out its century-old recipe based on assumptions rather than solid research, leading to immediate outrage, boycotts, and a reversal in less than three months.

Core principle: Disastrous business decisions often begin with seemingly reasonable assumptions. Effective management is evidence-based.

🎯 What your audience expects

• Don't expect your audience to accept claims just because you state them as facts
• Avoid empty phrases like "studies show," "experts agree," or "it's widely accepted that"
• Do the work to find the facts

🎯 Your authority

Conducting effective research and thoroughly documenting your sources will help you construct your own authority and credibility.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Well-formatted messages attract readers by using deliberate font choices, clear headings, generous white space, and strategic graphics to guide attention and clarify structure.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Formatting helps both writer and reader: selecting fonts, writing headings, using white space, and inserting graphics forces you to clarify priorities and guides your audience toward clearer structure.
• Readers scan before reading: audiences will scan your message before deciding whether to read it, so formatting must highlight what matters most.
• Four core formatting tools: fonts (voice), headings (hierarchy), white space (readability), and graphics (visual communication).
• Common confusion: don't treat formatting as decoration—it's a structural and strategic decision that affects comprehension and credibility.
• Why it matters: formatting increases reader access and enhances your credibility.

🎨 Font selection and typography

🎨 What fonts communicate

Fonts are the voice in which your writing speaks.

• Fonts convey personality and tone quickly (traditional, modern, powerful, playful).
• Font choice is not cosmetic; it supports or undermines your message's impression.
• Example: a formal business proposal in a "goofy" font would undermine credibility.

🔤 Typography basics

Key terms:

• Serif vs. sans serif: serifs are widened feet at the end of strokes; sans serif fonts lack these.
• Kerning: space between letters; adjusted mainly for large headings to ensure even visual spacing.
• Stroke, baseline, x-height, ascender, descender: anatomical parts of letterforms.

🎯 How to choose fonts deliberately

Choose fonts that:

• Convey the right impression for your document.
• Are large and dark enough for easy reading (remember the population is aging).
• Are distinct and bold.
• Work well on multiple screen sizes.

Practical approach:

• Use two fonts: one for titles/headings, one for body text.
• Rule of thumb: pair a serif with a sans serif.
• Define 3–4 levels: headings, subheadings, body text, annotations.
• Safe pairings include Helvetica + Garamond, Arial + Georgia, Bebas Neue + Helvetica Light.

Don't confuse: if sharing editable documents, unusual fonts may not display on recipients' devices; PDF preserves fonts.

📋 Headings and emphasis

📋 Why headings matter

Our brains are attuned to information hierarchy.

• Headings help readers answer: "What should I pay attention to first? What can I ignore until later?"
• Use headings in messages longer than three or four paragraphs.
• Because you've planned and organized, writing headings should be straightforward.

✍️ Writing effective headings

• Make headings grammatically parallel across the same level.
• Make headings contentful: "Why buy from us?" is clearer than "Why?"
• Coordinate headings in color and size for visual consistency.
• Use "styles formatting" tools (Word, Google Docs, Pages) to apply consistent formatting and generate outlines easily.

💪 Placing emphasis skillfully

Avoid typewriter-era habits:

• ALL CAPS looks like SHOUTING.
• Underlining interrupts descending letter strokes.

Use instead:

Technique	Effect
Size	Draws the eye
Italics	Emphasizes key words
Grayscale	Provides contrast
Bolding	Catches attention
Colors	Pleases the reader

Don't confuse: avoid using two forms of emphasis at once (e.g., bold + italics); choose the right one.

📧 Formatting email with headings

• Use bolded paragraph headings for scanability in email.
• Helps you stay organized; readers love it.
• Example structure: each main point gets a bolded heading (e.g., "UPDATE CARDS DAILY"), followed by explanation text.
• Choose a default font that represents your voice well (Verdana or Georgia may be better than Arial).
• Create a professional signature block with contact information.

⬜ White space and layout

⬜ Why white space matters

White space is, of course, just space. But like silence, it is remarkably powerful.

• A page full of black text with small margins feels daunting and unappealing.
• White space enhances readability, directs attention, and lightens the page feel.
• Visual simplicity invites reader attention.

📏 Alignment and line length

Left-align vs. justify:

• Left-justified, ragged-right text is easiest to read and should be used most often.
• Justified text (aligned on both edges) can look sharp but creates odd spacing between words—distracting white "rivers" in paragraphs.
• Narrow columns can be justified well if you hyphenate words causing rivers or use smart design software like InDesign.

Keep lines short:

• Rule of thumb: keep each line 52–70 characters wide so the eye captures it quickly.
• Use generous margins or columns to shorten lines.

Don't confuse: right-aligned text can be used for short text units, but not for body paragraphs.

📐 Margins and spacing

Margins:

• Give the eye a rest; don't skimp.
• One wider margin (up to two inches) on mirrored sides can accommodate illustrations or pull quotes.

Line spacing (leading):

• Optimal spacing is 1.15 (not 1.0 or 2.0).
• Single spacing is acceptable; never double-space business documents—it looks unfinished and unprofessional.

Paragraph formatting:

• Don't indent the first line (typewriter holdover).
• Leave an extra line between paragraphs; make all paragraphs flush with the left margin.

📝 Paragraph length

Paragraph breaks are the breath of reading.

• Don't force readers to go too long without a break.
• Paragraph length is both a content and formatting decision.
• When writing in columns, use very short paragraphs.
• Use links liberally to keep paragraphs shorter.

📊 Graphics and visual communication

📊 When to use graphics

Sometimes the best way to communicate information is with graphics, not words.

Choosing the right graphic:

To communicate about...	Try a...
Sequence	Timeline, Flowchart
People	Photo, Org Chart
Location	Map, Diagram, Floorplan
Data	Table, Chart
Trend	Line Chart, Bubble Chart
Topic	Infographic
Action or concept	Icon

• Tools: Andrew Abela's "Which Chart?" and Juice Labs "Chart Chooser" templates.
• Resources: Canva for infographics, The Noun Project for icons.

🎯 The three-step graphic integration method

1. Anchor:

• Write a clear reference in the body text before the graphic appears.
• Give readers context and a reason to care.
• Example: "Figure 1 shows those measures and an obvious trend toward longer hair."

2. Position:

• Place graphics strategically so readers can quickly identify and locate information.
• Label clearly and cite the source (small font at bottom right).

3. Interpret:

• Explain the meaning of your graphic; don't just insert it.
• Help readers move from "What?" through "So What?" to "Now What?"
• Example: after showing a chart, explain "The findings show that in the year 2012, hair length at Berkeley was five times the hair length at BYU."

Don't confuse: inserting a graphic is not enough—you must anchor, position, and interpret it to add to your argument.

🔄 The revision mindset

🔄 What "revise" means

The word "revise" means to "see again."

• While writing, you are zoomed in on details.
• To revise, you zoom out, then back in—seeing your work as your reader will.
• Rewriting is where "the game is won or lost."

⏰ The revision process

Take a break:

• After finishing a substantial first draft, get away from it completely.
• Go outside, run around the block—get your mind off the topic.
• Your brain will assemble and organize information during the break.
• Set an alarm for when you'll start work again.

Time investment:

• Amount of revision time depends on length and importance.
• An annual report is a major project; even a short, critical email might take days to get right.

Email revision tip:

• Make revising emails standard operating procedure.
• Don't fill in the TO: field until after you've written and revised—prevents accidental sending of unfinished drafts.

🔍 Zoom out, zoom in approach

• When you return from your break, examine your writing in a new way.
• Mentally zoom out (see the whole) and then back in (check details).
• This mirrors how your reader will approach the document: scanning first, then reading selectively.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective revision requires mentally stepping back to view your document from multiple distances—layout, structure, content, and grammar—just as your reader will approach it.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• What "revise" means: to "see again" by zooming out and then back in, examining your work from different perspectives after taking a break.
• The zoom sequence: start at 10 feet (layout/design), move to 5 feet (organization/headings), then 2 feet (content/paragraphs), and finally 1 foot (grammar/style).
• Why the sequence matters: readers don't read linearly—they first notice design, scan headings, skim lines, then decide whether to commit time to reading through.
• Common confusion: writers often edit only at the sentence level (1 foot), missing higher-level issues with design, organization, or paragraph structure that readers notice first.
• Time investment: revision time depends on length and importance; even short critical emails may take days to perfect.

🔄 The revision mindset

🧠 Why "see again"

"Revise" means to "see again"—exactly what you need to do when preparing your writing for public consumption.

• While drafting, you are zoomed in on details; revision requires zooming out to gain fresh perspective.
• The excerpt emphasizes that "rewriting is the essence of writing well—where the game is won or lost."
• Taking a break is essential: get away from your draft completely (e.g., run around the block) so your brain can assemble and organize information unconsciously.

⏰ Timing and breaks

• Set an alarm for when you'll return to work after your break.
• The amount of revision time depends on both length and importance of the document.
• Example: an annual report is a major project, but even a short critical email might take days to get right.
• Practical tip: For emails, don't fill in the TO: field until after you've written and revised—make revision standard operating procedure.

👁️ Reader-first perspective

• Readers don't start with your first word and read carefully through each word in order.
• Instead, readers first notice design/layout, glance at the title, scan headings and visuals, skim some lines, then decide whether to commit time.
• Revise using that same sequence: zoom out, then zoom in.

🖼️ 10-foot level: Layout and design

🎨 What you see from 10 feet

• From about 10 feet away from a printout, you can't actually read the document.
• You get a sense of overall design: headings, alignment, white space, graphics, contrast.
• This distance matters because readers' first (and perhaps most powerful) impression is more about design than content.
• Key principle: More than ever before, good design = credibility.

✅ Layout and design checklist

Ask yourself these questions at the 10-foot level:

• Does my document look good from a distance?
• Does it have a clear entry point?
• Should I use color to add interest or draw attention to key points?
• Did I choose attractive and clear fonts?
• Did I leave enough space to make my message look inviting? (Blank lines between paragraphs, 1.15 line spacing, comfortable margins)
• Is there any data that I should illustrate with a graphic?
• If this will be viewed online, is it readable on a mobile device?

📋 5-foot level: Agenda and organization

🎯 What you see from 5 feet

• Readers look for quick signs that you are organized and trustworthy.
• At this distance, focus on the first two of the "4A's": Attention and Agenda.
• Headings become visible and important at this level.

🔔 Attention

Question: Do I capture the readers' attention immediately? Do I provide context and tell readers why they should care?

Document type	Attention-grabbing tool
Report	Title and opening sentence
Letter	Opening sentence
Email	Subject line (keep it short, descriptive, and interesting enough to stand out from dozens or hundreds of other emails)

🗺️ Agenda

Question: Can my reader easily locate a clear agenda that previews the content of the message?

• Your agenda is usually the last line of your opening paragraph.
• It sets up the organization of your message and primes readers' minds to receive it.
• All but the shortest messages deserve agendas.

📝 2-foot level: Content and paragraphs

💡 What you see from 2 feet

• At this distance, examine the substance of your message.
• Check the remaining two of the 4A's: Argument and Action.
• Make sure you support your attention grabber and agenda.

🧩 Argument

An argument in this sense is not a conflict—it's the combination of your main point and how you back it up.

Question: Do I have a strong argument with all the information necessary to fulfill the promise of my agenda?

Ask yourself:

• Can I streamline the reading experience by deleting anything? Or can I link to information instead of including it?
• Have I remembered the readers' point of view and made clear why they should care?
• Have I given the details and support my readers will want or need?
• Have I checked my facts and claims to make sure they're absolutely accurate and cited?

🎬 Action

Question: Does my conclusion include a call to action, reminding readers why the whole thing matters? Have I included information that will make next steps easy?

📄 Paragraph structure and topic sentences

For each paragraph:

• Read the topic sentence. Is it clear? Does it contain the main point of the paragraph?
• Does everything else in the paragraph relate to the topic sentence?
• Critical test: Busy readers often skim documents by reading only the topic sentences. If someone did this to your document, would they catch the main points of your argument? If not, rewrite.

💼 Professional insight

The excerpt includes advice from a LinkedIn HR professional:

• "People move fast and don't have time to parse through what you are trying to say."
• Avoid "throat clearing" phrases—phrases or words that add to your word count but contribute nothing to the message.
• The need is to communicate succinctly and directly.

🔍 1-foot level: Grammar, punctuation, and style

✏️ Grammar and punctuation

• Zoom in really close for your final step.
• Comb through your work at the sentence level to catch any errors of grammar, spelling, or punctuation that will interfere with the message.

Practical techniques:

• Read your work aloud to force yourself to slow down and hear the words (you may have read it so many times that you mentally skip words).
• To catch spelling errors, read backwards so you see each word instead of its meaning.

🎭 What style means

Style refers to tone, word choice, sentence variety, and a host of other elements.

• Everything you write has a style; you can't escape it.
• Analogy: Like wardrobe choices that communicate something about you, your writing reflects your personal style (deliberate or not).
• The way you use words, the rhythm of your sentences, even whether you use a semicolon or a dash—these subtle choices constitute your style.

🎯 Evaluating style appropriateness

At the one-foot level, ask:

• Is my style appropriate to the context and audience?
• Too stuffy for a quick check-in with project teammates?
• Too chatty for an update to the vice-president?
• If something sounds clunky or off-key, it's a style problem that needs fixing.

✨ Developing good style

• Style refers to a certain X factor that elevates writing from useful to delightful, informative to compelling.
• The best way to develop good style is to read, read, read.
• Get the voice of great stylists in your head so you can imitate their cadence, nuance, wit, and flair.
• Example quote from Dr. Seuss: "I know my stuff looks like it was all rattled off in 28 seconds, but every word is a struggle and every sentence is like the pangs of birth."

👥 Getting external feedback

🤝 When to ask for review

• If your project is long, complicated, or mission critical, have someone else give you feedback.
• Be reasonable in your time request and make the job easy for your editor.
• Ask if they'd like a printed copy, or offer to grab them a drink while they look it over.

🧠 Overcoming anxiety

• To overcome natural anxiety about putting your work in front of critical eyes, focus on the project rather than yourself.
• Mentally put your editor on your team in getting the job done well.

🔄 Summary: The ZOOM habit

📊 The four levels

Distance	Focus	What to check
10 feet	Layout & design	Overall appearance, white space, fonts, graphics, mobile readability
5 feet	Agenda & organization	Attention-grabbing opening, clear agenda, headings
2 feet	Content & paragraphs	Argument strength, action/conclusion, topic sentences, supporting details
1 foot	Grammar & style	Sentence-level errors, tone, word choice, appropriateness

🎯 Making it a habit

• Remember that thorough revision allows you a fresh take—you see your work again.
• Imagine yourself zooming out to get an overall impression, then progressively zooming in through each level.
• Make ZOOMing a habit. Your readers will thank you.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective management requires mastering three communication domains—running efficient meetings, controlling email and chat, and inspiring others through motivational communication—to accomplish goals through people rather than just personal effort.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Meetings are costly: Collaborative activities have increased 50% over two decades and can consume up to 80% of an individual's time, making meeting efficiency critical.
• Meeting success factors: Google's research found only two commonalities in high-performing teams—equal conversational turn-taking and high social sensitivity to others' emotions.
• Email mastery: Managers must make email their servant, not master, through techniques like Inbox Zero, scheduled email time, and relying on search rather than sorting.
• Motivation requires communication: Inspiring leaders are prolific communicators who maintain a 5:1 ratio of positive to negative comments and ask as many questions as they give instructions.
• Common confusion: Many assume inspiring leaders give grand speeches, but research shows they actually ask many questions, tell stories, and celebrate others rather than themselves.

📅 Meeting fundamentals

🤔 When to call a meeting

Call meetings when you need to collaborate on solutions, create new ideas, make decisions, or assign actions.

• Do call meetings for: collaboration, brainstorming, decision-making, or assigning actions.
• Don't call meetings for: simply conveying information (unless sensitive).
• Weekly meetings can maintain cohesion, but consider less time-consuming alternatives like shared documents or project-management software.
• Key principle: Question the necessity of every meeting you call.

👥 Whom to invite

The optimal group size is an odd number close to five for discussion-based meetings.

Essential attendees include:

1. The decision maker (authorized to make key decisions)
2. People who can frame issues, provide context, and propose solutions
3. People required to implement the decisions

Avoid:

• Too many people (trying not to offend)
• Too few (inviting only those you're comfortable with)
• Large groups where social loafing occurs (participants reduce effort and avoid responsibilities)

⏰ When and where to meet

Meeting type	Best timing/location	Why
Standard meetings	Tuesday at 3 p.m.	Time to prepare after weekend; days left to execute assignments
Quick response emails	6-7 a.m.	Compete with fewer emails; 45% reply rate
Stand-up meetings	Common area, standing	Brief progress reports; efficiency from not wanting to stand long
Walking meetings	Outside, 1:1 or 1:2	Spurs creative thought, increases friendship, provides office break
Lunch meetings	Restaurant (early/late) or brought in	Helps people relax and feel closer

Avoid: Friday afternoons and Monday mornings if possible.

📋 Meeting length guidelines

• 15 minutes: Status updates, help with single roadblock, readjust assignments
• 30 minutes: Brainstorm, create project schedule, performance review
• 50 minutes: First team meeting on new project, multi-faceted problems, discussions with more than five people

Key principle: Plan meetings that feel a little short for the task—participants stay more focused, alert, and grateful.

🎯 Running effective meetings

📝 Before the meeting

Create and publish an agenda including:

• Meeting purpose
• Invitees and their roles
• Location and length
• Links to previous meeting minutes
• Questions for participants to consider beforehand
• Links to review materials

Example: A timed agenda shows specific time blocks for each topic (e.g., "Project Status Update: 3:00 p.m. - 30 min").

🔄 The three Rs during meetings

Relationships: Google's research on successful teams found two factors:

• Equality in conversational turn-taking: Everyone speaks about the same amount over time
• High social sensitivity: Members quickly and accurately read how others feel through tone, expression, and nonverbal cues

Roles: Assign clear responsibilities:

• Functional roles: timekeeper, facilitator, recorder, questioner
• Problem-solving roles: architect, madman, carpenter, judge
• Debate roles: Blue Hats (find flaws and criticize) vs. Red Hats (only comment on positives)

Results: Move tasks to completion while managing relationships and roles:

• Quickly refocus wandering conversations
• Keep desired results visible
• Use phrases like "Let's check the agenda and move on" or "Our main goal here is to..."

✅ After the meeting

Don't lose meeting momentum—delegate and publish next steps:

• Send clear follow-up email listing each person's assignment with due dates
• Include links to examples or resources
• Enter assignments in project management software
• Check in with team members two days before their deadlines

Example: "Dave: File the patent application by June 20. Here's an example."

🌐 Remote meeting best practices

Research by Rosanne Siino shows emotional engagement is key for remote participants:

1. Avoid "mixed" meetings: Either everyone's in the room or everyone's remote
2. Have introductions: Remote participants introduce themselves and identify their role
3. Discourage mobile phones: Unpredictable connections exhaust participants; use VOIP
4. Track participation: Monitor who talks and who doesn't; draw in non-participants with questions

📧 Email and chat management

🧘 Email zen principles

Good managers need to fully understand the zen of email. It must be your servant, not your master.

Three key management tips:

Tip	Data	Action
Search rather than sort	-	Rely on search capabilities instead of maintaining topic folders
Keep messages short	Response rates drop after 125 words	Use links and attachments for additional information
Fence your email time	Average employee checks email 36 times/hour; 16 minutes to refocus after each check	Check email 3 times a day instead of 30

📥 Inbox Zero strategy

If you routinely ignore email in your inbox, you might ignore something important or forget it.

Steps to achieve Inbox Zero:

• Read Anthony Casalena's approach (he handles ~300 emails daily)
• Let email software filter for you
• Keep inbox to under 10 items
• Unsubscribe from unwanted newsletters and junk email

Additional tips:

• Breathe deeply: Avoid "Email Apnea" (shallow breathing while reading email)
• Stretch occasionally: Combat physical tension from email work

💬 Chat management

Instant messaging is common in business, especially for remote workers.

Benefits:

• Instantaneous but asynchronous
• Accommodates groups
• Records threads
• Appealing to non-native English speakers

Key to productivity: Manage notification settings properly.

Tool example: Slack is a popular messaging, archive, and search tool for teams.

Don't confuse: Chat can boost or hinder productivity—the difference is in how you manage notifications and etiquette, not the tool itself.

🔥 Motivational communication

🎭 What motivation is (and isn't)

Many people cringe at motivational communication, picturing slick speakers or manipulative tactics.

Reality: The ability to inspire and motivate others is a hallmark of extraordinary leaders and requires powerful communication skills.

Research by Jack Zenger and Joe Folkman identifies six best practices for inspiring leadership.

📢 Communicate often

Inspiring leaders are prolific communicators.

They stay in touch with their people:

• Listening to them
• Sharing ideas
• Providing encouragement
• Reminding them of the bigger picture

➕ Be positive

Research by Kim Cameron on leadership teams shows:

Team performance	Positive:Negative comment ratio
Highest-performing	5:1
Medium-performing	2:1
Low-performing	1:3 (negative comments dominate)

Key principle: Follow the 5:1 rule and keep it positive.

❓ Ask questions

Stereotypes suggest inspiring leaders give lofty speeches, but they actually ask many questions.

Research by Losada and Heaphy:

• High-performing organizations: Leaders ask one question for each instruction
• Low-performing organizations: 20 instructions for each question

Why questions inspire:

• Indicate openness
• Encourage two-way dialogue
• Show respect for others' input

🎉 Celebrate others

• Shine the spotlight on others rather than yourself
• Be generous with praise
• Give credit to often-anonymous co-workers

Don't confuse: Celebrating others with losing authority—generosity with recognition actually increases your influence.

📖 Tell stories

Inspiring leaders tell stories that draw the audience in.

Why stories work:

• Concrete and real, therefore more memorable than facts or logical arguments
• Evoke emotions (funny, sad, embarrassing, shocking, admirable)
• Provide sense of completion (beginning, middle, end)

Action: Keep a fresh stock of anecdotes for formal and informal communications.

🔥 Show passion

Inspiration means "to exert an animating, enlivening, or exalting influence."

Your passion as a communicator directly affects how animated and enlivened your audience feels.

Important distinction: Communicating with passion doesn't require high-energy histrionics. Quiet authenticity and consistent commitment are proven ways to convey personal conviction.

Example: An entrepreneur notes that walking meetings help participants "dodge interruptions and focus more tightly on the discussion. The increased heart rate and blood flow make me feel sharper, too."

🎯 Conclusion

Your career will include managerial roles where three skills will make you stand out:

1. Facilitating effective meetings in a world where time-wasting meetings are the norm
2. Managing email and messaging to survive and thrive in our era of communication saturation
3. Inspiring and motivating others to achieve important goals

These communication skills are essential for getting things done…with people.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Persuasion in business requires careful planning—defining your purpose, knowing your audience, choosing rhetorical strategies (ethos, logos, pathos), and structuring your message to convince others to see things your way and take action.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Persuasion needs planning: Great ideas don't sell themselves; they require persuasive expression using the PASS framework (Purpose, Audience, Strategy, Structure).
• Solutions beat suggestions: Present your idea as the solution to a problem your audience faces, not just a vague suggestion.
• Three classical strategies: Ethos (credibility/trust), logos (logic/evidence), and pathos (emotion) are the foundational persuasive approaches.
• Six modern tactics: Cialdini's research identifies commitment, reciprocity, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity as powerful persuasion techniques.
• Common confusion: Direct vs. indirect structure—use direct when the audience agrees or the task is easy; use indirect when the audience is predisposed to disagree or the task is complex.

🎯 Persuade with purpose

🎯 Clarify your "ask"

• Before composing, write a one-sentence purpose statement: what exactly do you want your audience to believe, feel, and do?
• Complaining is not persuading—if you have a complaint, think of a specific solution first.
• Example: Instead of "Sarah deserves more money," your purpose is "A 7.5% salary increase for Sarah to bring her to median market rate."

📏 Scale your ask

• Trying to sell your complete project at the outset makes rejection more likely.
• Narrow your purpose to focus on the next immediate step.
• Example: Instead of asking for full project approval, ask for approval to complete Phase 1.

👥 Know your audience

🧩 Solutions are more persuasive than suggestions

Solutions address specific problems your audience faces; suggestions are vague ideas.

• Identify the current problems and context in which your audience is making decisions.
• Example: If your boss needs to retain top performers but is also under pressure to cut costs, your solution must address both concerns.

🔍 Tailor to audience preferences

Ask: Is your audience most likely to respond to…

• Authority and experts (ethos): "Our CEO has said we can't afford below-market salaries."
• Data and logic (logos): "Surveys show employees with below-market salaries are 10 times more likely to quit."
• Emotion and loyalty (pathos): "Everyone likes to feel appreciated—Sarah has been feeling underappreciated lately."

❓ The unknown audience

When you don't know your audience:

• Default to facts and figures—people like to think of themselves as logical.
• Use stories or analogies—they are memorable and digestible for general audiences.

🎭 Choose a strategy: Classical rhetoric

🏛️ Ethos (credibility and trust)

Ethos persuades with trustworthy information from credible sources.

• Establish expertise by stating credentials: "Research by Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman and the Gallup organization has consistently shown…"
• Cite solid sources to make your audience trust your conclusions.
• Gathering data from credible sources establishes your own credibility.

❤️ Pathos (emotion and values)

Pathos influences through sentiment and emotion.

• Research shows people often make decisions emotionally before consciously processing alternatives.
• Make your audience feel something about your proposal—even if it's just feeling good about being logical.
• Emotions to invoke: admiration, empathy, fear, relief, guilt, happiness, jealousy, pity, desire.
• Example: "Sarah goes the extra mile but never seeks the spotlight. A salary increase would be perfect: measurable yet private." (Admiration and empathy)
• Example: "Losing Sarah would jeopardize our deadline—and this is a high-visibility project." (Fear)

🧠 Logos (logic, reason, proof)

Logos influences through logic, reasoning, and evidence.

Avoid logical fallacies

• Study common logical fallacies (e.g., from "Rhetological Fallacies" infographic).
• Faulty thinking risks losing credibility with well-educated audiences.

Internal logic

• String together causes and effects, antecedents and consequences, or accumulating evidence to build to your conclusion.
• Avoid random jumbles of ideas—arguments should flow in a clear sequence.

Facts and figures

• Support proposals with facts, statistics, and data.
• Never assume, guess, or invoke anonymous authority—prove your claims.

🔬 Choose a strategy: Modern research

🤝 Commitment

• People are more inclined to do something if they pre-commit to it.
• Example: In a 1987 experiment, 86.7% of voters who pre-committed actually voted, vs. 61.5% of the general population.
• Application: "Are you okay if we schedule a time to meet with the compensation team this Friday?"

🔄 Reciprocity

Reciprocity is quid pro quo: you give something to get something.

• Think of it as "the favor bank"—people keep a mental ledger of who owes them what.
• Deposit favors to withdraw cooperation later.
• Example: "Our team has never turned down additional projects. We do whatever it takes—and Sarah has been our most dependable programmer during all-nighters."

👥 Social proof

• People generally do what they perceive their peers to be doing.
• Example: Hotel guests were most likely to reuse towels when told "most guests in this hotel reuse their towels."
• Application: "I hear from friends at other companies that they're locking in top performers with special compensation packages."

🎓 Authority

• Closely aligned with Aristotle's ethos.
• A person whose authority your audience trusts becomes the most persuasive advocate.
• Example: "Laszlo Bock, Google's top HR executive, is a huge proponent of rewarding top talent."

💚 Liking

Liking relies on the relationship between the audience and the influencer.

• People are influenced by positive feelings toward the person making the request.
• Example: Charities that ask sympathetic donors to send personalized requests to close friends achieve 56% response rates vs. 30% from impersonal requests.
• Application: Build relationships over time—go to lunch, offer sincere compliments, get to know your audience.

⏰ Scarcity

• One of the most heavily researched and documented persuasive tactics.
• Modern term: FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out).
• Point out what the audience could lose by not acting.
• Example: "Talent like Sarah's comes along once in every 50 hires or so. We definitely want to keep her happy."

📐 Determine a structure

➡️ Direct approach

• When to use: Easy persuasive task, substantial agreement with your audience.
• Deliver the bottom line first, provide reasoning afterward.
• In business, the direct approach is highly valued and should be your default.

🔀 Indirect approach

• When to use: Difficult or complex persuasive task, or audience predisposed to disagree.
• Present reasoning first, leading eventually to your final conclusion.
• Internal logic is critical—the way you structure proof makes the conclusion seem like the best possible idea.

📣 Call to action

• Don't let your message fizzle out—close purposefully.
• Make it easy for your audience to take the next step.
• Be helpful and anticipate needs: add links, provide phone numbers, bold deadlines.
• Example: "If you agree Sarah deserves this raise, just sign this form by Thursday and I'll take it over to Jake in HR so it takes effect in time for payroll on Friday."

📉 Deliver bad news effectively

🛡️ Why it matters

• Delivering bad news is essential to business: saying no, cutting budgets, firing people, denying requests.
• Do it calmly, with integrity and compassion.
• Goal: Persuade the audience to accept bad news without becoming overly defensive.

🌉 Bond, Bridge, Bad News, Build (4B's)

A structured approach to delivering bad news:

Step	Purpose	Example
Bond	Establish positive connection	"Thank you for asking me to write your letter of recommendation. I'm flattered."
Bridge	Transition to the issue	"Because we've worked together for a long time, I want to explain my decision."
Bad News	State the negative message clearly	"I can't write your letter of recommendation right now. You seem to have lost your drive in the last couple of years."
Build	Offer a path forward or support	"If you up your game for a few months, I'd be happy to write the letter. Let's chat in person—I'd love to help."

💡 Direct vs. indirect for bad news

• You can rewrite the bad news paragraph to be direct by changing the order: state the bad news first, then explain.
• Example: "I can't write your letter of recommendation right now. You're a great colleague, but you seem to have lost your drive…"

❤️ Deliver with honesty, kindness, and clarity

• Plan your bad news delivery—don't wing it.
• Use both head (logic) and heart (compassion) approaches to dampen negative impact.
• Don't confuse persuasion with manipulation: Show all the facts in a way that helps people see things as you do, rather than hiding facts to mislead.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Effective visual communication—through well-designed slides, charts, and infographics—transforms data and ideas into clear, memorable messages that help audiences understand your point quickly and persuasively.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why visuals matter: Human brains retain 65% of visual information after 3 days versus only 10% of text/audio information alone.
• Three core design principles: Layout (space, alignment, proximity), contrast (size, color, shape), and repetition create professional, brain-friendly designs.
• Slides are not your notes: Presentation slides should illustrate ideas visually, not serve as speaking notes, handouts, or the presentation itself.
• Data visualization requires storytelling: Strip away default chart clutter, then rebuild with only elements that focus attention on your specific message.
• Common confusion: Templates vs. custom design—templates are convenient but can look lazy; customize them or create your own for originality and message alignment.

🎨 Three essential design concepts

🗂️ Layout: Structure and order

Layout encompasses three qualities that create clean, credible design:

Space creates structure and visual relief:

• Guides the eye to key elements
• Makes content stand out rather than overwhelming viewers
• Tip: Squint to blur your vision and see areas of positive/negative space

Alignment produces a professional look:

• Objects and text aligned along invisible lines create order and connection
• Makes content more "brain-friendly"
• Tip: Use pop-up rulers in slide software to achieve precise alignment

Proximity shows relationships:

• Group related items by clustering them together
• Add white space between clusters to separate concepts
• Helps audiences interpret messages quickly
• Example: Remove extra line spacing after paragraph headings to keep headings visually connected to their content

🎯 Contrast: Focus and hierarchy

Contrast: Variation in size, shape, color, and typography that catches the eye and communicates importance.

• Design without contrast "dissolves into gray mush"
• Greater contrast = greater impact
• Determine which elements are most important and give them maximum contrast

How to add contrast:

• Size variations (larger = more important)
• Color differences
• Shade variations (light vs. dark)
• Shape distinctions

Don't confuse: Contrast vs. chaos—constant variation numbs audiences; clashing combinations overwhelm. Use contrast strategically on priority elements only.

Accessibility note: About 1 in 20 people experience color-blindness; always test your visuals in grayscale to ensure they work when printed in black and white.

🔁 Repetition: Unity and recognition

Consistent use of layouts, colors, shapes, and fonts makes designs look intentional and professional.

• Like the recurring motif in Beethoven's 5th Symphony (da-da-da-DUN), repetition creates recognition and unity
• Use a small, consistent range of colors throughout a project
• Variations on a theme unify the entire work

Resources for color palettes:

• Adobe Color CC
• Coolors
• ColourLovers

Organizations typically have style guides with established palettes, but understanding color theory helps you create effective palettes when needed.

📊 Slide design principles

📝 What slides are NOT (four key distinctions)

What slides are NOT	Why this matters	What to do instead
Your notes	Reading bullet-point lists makes audiences ignore you and read ahead	Move speaking notes to the notes panel; illustrate ideas visually
Your presentation	Slides taking over shifts focus from your message to the slides themselves	Keep slides simple as visual aids; avoid distracting animations unless illustrating movement
Your handout	Presentation slides rarely work as standalone documents	Create separate handouts; customize speaker's notes and print alongside slides
Expensive	Worrying about slide count leads to crowding	Split dense content across multiple slides; add white space freely

Builds for complex information: Layer information across a series of slides (Build Layer 1, Build Layer 2, Build Layer 3) to communicate dense information step-by-step. This approach also translates well to PDF or print.

🖼️ Making slides visual

Graphics: Present information visually rather than textually whenever possible.

Icons: Use modern icons instead of old-fashioned clipart (sources: NounProject, IconFinder, FlatIcon).

Photos:

• Use high-resolution, meaningful, natural-looking images
• "Full bleed" = photo fills the entire slide, even bleeding off edges
• Choose visually interesting photos with multiple layers of meaning
• Example: Instead of obvious teamwork images, use photos that imply collaboration through composition or metaphor

Free quality image sources:

• freeimages.com
• unsplash.com
• pexels.com
• deathtothestockphoto.com
• lifeofpix.com

Legal considerations:

• Never use images without permission
• Always credit sources
• Use Flickr or Google Images search filters for Creative Commons or reuse-licensed images
• Don't confuse: Convenient vs. legal—copying from Google search is tempting but requires proper licensing

Video: Embed short videos to illustrate points, wake up audiences, or show processes. Embedding ensures reliability; linking keeps file size small.

Current design trends:

• Flat design is currently popular
• Skeuomorphic design, drop shadows, and gradients look old-fashioned
• Search "slide design trends" annually to stay current

✍️ Typography and navigation

Typography principles for slides:

• Keep it simple: Use only 1-2 typefaces; use bold, shade, and color for contrast
• Go big: 60-point for titles, 36 for headings, 28 for supporting text (back-row readability test)
• Ensure contrast: Text must stand out; consider boxes or ribbons over photos for better contrast

Signposting for long presentations:

Running agenda: Visual cues along slide edges that show structure and track progress through the presentation.

Example: Highlighting the current agenda item creates context; this textbook uses a running agenda to indicate which chapter you're viewing.

🛠️ Templates and tools

Template caution:

• Built-in themes are convenient but may seem lazy or unoriginal
• Don't use the first template everyone has seen
• Customize templates by changing colors or graphic elements
• Consider creating your own template using master slides

Platform options beyond PowerPoint:

Tool	Strengths
Google Slides	Accessible anywhere, updateable, mobile-friendly
Prezi	Freed from linear structure (can be brilliant or confusing)
Canva	Free web-based design with tutorials, templates, and tools

Tech preparation (it will betray you):

• Save copies on flash drive and web
• Send copy to host/organizer in advance
• Keep accompanying files (videos, images, fonts) in one labeled folder; compress to .zip
• Include PDF version as backup
• Plan setup time for projector/screen/printer variations

📈 Data visualization

🎯 The core principle: Show meaning, not just data

Data drives business decisions, but your purpose is not to communicate data—it's to communicate meaning.

"Every bit of ink on a graphic requires a reason. And nearly always that reason should be that the ink presents new information." —Tufte, E.R. (1983)

Success metric: Your audience should see the story in your chart within the first few moments of looking at it.

🔨 Three-step process: Break down, then build up

Default chart designs from Excel or Google Sheets don't know your story. You must strip away defaults and rebuild with purpose.

Step 1: Select a chart type Choose based on the story you're telling:

• Line graph: Trends over time
• Bar chart: Comparisons
• Pie charts: Popular but lack visual precision (use cautiously)
• Table: Sometimes the cleanest, most precise option

Complex stories may require multiple charts.

Step 2: Cut the clutter Remove all formatting initially:

• Borders, tick marks, background
• 3D effects, shading, all color
• Labels, title, legend
• Often even one axis can be removed

Step 3: Focus attention Rebuild strategically—every element should clarify your message:

• Label data directly (not with legends)
• Add color and weight only where you want focus
• Use titles or callouts that tell your story, not just describe the chart

Example transformation: The excerpt references a dramatic before/after of a sales report design showing this process in action.

📊 Infographics: Visual storytelling

Infographics: Creative combinations of text and graphics that tell larger stories.

What can be visualized:

• Numbers and data
• Abstract concepts
• Narratives
• Relationships
• Processes

Credibility requirements:

• Always cite sources
• Consider industry expectations (advertising vs. accounting have different norms)

Tools for creating infographics:

• Canva
• easel.ly
• piktochart
• Infogr.am
• Visme
• VennGage

Inspiration sources:

• visual.ly for examples
• David McCandless's and Chris Jordan's TED talks

Don't confuse: Memorable vs. appropriate—creative infographics can be powerful but must match professional culture and audience expectations.

🎓 Practical application

📚 Design applies everywhere

Apply layout, contrast, and repetition principles to all your work—presentations, documents, reports, and digital communications. The difference will be "amazing."

📐 Spectrum of slide types

Type	Information density	Purpose	Example
TED-style	Very low	Cinematic, speaker-focused	Simple high-impact visuals
Slidedocs	Hybrid	Stand-alone viewing	This textbook (created in PowerPoint)
Information-dense	High	On-demand reference	Text-heavy standalone documents

Slidedocs: A hybrid between the visual richness of presentation slides and the information density of text-based documents.

🎨 Continuous learning resources

• Nancy Duarte's slide:ology
• Canva's Design School tutorials
• SlideShare, Note & Point, Slide Guru for inspiration (quality varies; well-designed examples stand out)
• Cole Nussbaumer Knaflic's blog "Storytelling with Data"
• Darkhorse Analytics' animated guide "Clear off the Table"

Human brains prefer visual information: 65% retention after 3 days for visual content versus 10% for text/audio alone. Learning to create beautiful, clear charts, tables, infographics, and slides treats colleagues and clients to engaging, meaningful information—like "a little sugar" for the brain.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Mastering presentation skills—through careful planning, strategic setup, full-body communication, and effective troubleshooting—is critical for career success and enables you to contribute powerfully at key decision-making moments.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Why presentations matter: 70% of employed Americans say presentation skills are critical to work success; presentations influence key decisions (buying, selling, investing, hiring).
• Four-phase approach: plan ahead (PASS framework), set up strategically (room, tech, practice), use full-body communication (posture, voice, gestures), and troubleshoot effectively (recover attention, handle questions).
• Structure is crucial: oral presentations need rock-solid structure because audiences can't scan forward/backward—use the 4A framework (Attention, Agenda, Argument, Action).
• Common confusion: don't confuse memorizing a speech word-for-word with flexible preparation—memorization uses a less nimble part of the brain and makes recovery from mistakes harder.
• Practice threshold: three full practice runs create confidence and flexible mastery without over-rigidity.

📋 Planning with PASS

🎯 Purpose

• Write a clear, concise purpose statement: what outcome do you want from your message?
• Clarify exactly what you're trying to accomplish before building content.

👥 Audience

Key questions to answer:

• Who will be listening?
• What are their primary concerns?
• Why will your message matter to them?
• How can you get and keep their attention?

🧭 Strategy

• Determine the best approach to accomplish your aim.
• Consider: Will the audience trust you easily? Should you appeal to heads or hearts? Be direct or indirect?

🏗️ Structure: The 4A Framework

The 4A framework: Attention, Agenda, Argument, Action—a structure that keeps both presenter and audience on track during oral presentations.

Phase	Purpose	Key technique
Attention	Get everyone's attention	Use a skillful hook that builds confidence and gets audience on your side
Agenda	Preview structure	Tell audience what to expect; 2-3 part agendas work best
Argument	Deliver content	Follow promised structure; include only relevant details; plan interaction every 10-15 minutes
Action	Finish strong	Remind why message matters; issue stirring call to action; don't fade out

🪝 Effective hooks vs. weak openings

Strong hooks (inviting front doors):

• "$19,450: roughly the price of a new Toyota Corolla. That's what the average opioid-abusing employee costs his or her employer in annual medical expenses."
• "Walking through the warehouse this morning, I heard a loud wheezing sound. It was our inventory management system coughing up blood."

Weak openings (uninviting):

• "This report is about market segmentation."
• "Opioid abuse is a major problem for employers."

Don't confuse: A hook is not just stating your topic—it's creating an inviting entry point that captures attention and builds confidence.

❓ Q&A preparation

• Prepare as thoroughly for Q&A as for the main talk.
• Predict audience questions and concerns; prepare articulate answers or additional data slides.
• Critical: Don't fade out at the end of Q&A—wrap up with a final reference to your call to action.

🎬 Strategic Setup

🏠 Choose a "right-sized" room

• People are sensitive to how full a room is.
• Choose a room that accommodates expected guests without much extra space.
• Empty space makes turnout look weak and detracts from impact.
• If you can't change the space: remove extra chairs, pull remaining ones into a semi-circle.
• Benefit: People sitting closer together increases anticipation and encourages interaction.

💻 Technology checklist

Technology is both blessing and curse. Reduce stress with these steps:

• Arrive early enough to practice with slides/microphone.
• Bring extra cords, connectors, and appropriate adaptors (Mac vs. PC).
• Bring printed copies of notes and slides.
• Check microphone volume and know how to adjust it.
• Test the remote control—or bring your own.
• Most crucial: Create a backup plan in case tech fails.

🚫 Push the podium aside

• Podiums are good for water bottles, but don't hide behind them.
• People trust you more when they can see your whole body.
• Don't just stand beside the screen—slides support you, not the other way around.

🔁 Practice three times

The magic number for confidence and success: three full practice runs.

Why not memorize word-for-word?

• Memorization uses a different, less nimble part of the brain.
• If you lose concentration or forget a word, you feel sunk.
• Good notes + three practice runs = solid but flexible framework.

Additional benefit: Practice gives you an innate sense of timing, helping you know whether to stretch or cut content.

👔 Show up clean and tidy

• Arrive fresh, clean, dressed one step above audience average.
• Wrinkles, baggy knees, uneven hems, and stains are distracting and reduce audience confidence.
• Consider asking for dress advice depending on event importance.

🎭 Full-Body Communication

🚶 Take the stage with confidence

• Walk up with vigor and energy.
• Show passion and enthusiasm on your face—audience will unconsciously imitate your mood.
• Take a few seconds to look around, smile, make eye contact with 4-5 people.
• Gather the energy of anticipation.

🤨 Use your eyebrows

Eyebrows are the first thing from the top down that you can move to show expression.

Techniques:

• Raise them to show surprise or delight.
• Draw them up together to emphasize a question.
• Furrow them to show concern or concentration.
• These frames for your eyes draw people's attention.

👁️ Make eye contact

• When nervous, we tend to focus inward and look down—resist this.
• Hold short "conversations" with individual audience members.
• Spread attention throughout the group.
• Make sure your smile reaches your eyes—a twinkle makes audiences smile back and feel more positive.

Don't confuse: Eye contact isn't staring at one person—it's spreading brief, meaningful connections throughout the room.

🧍 Put your shoulders back

• Great posture conveys confidence.
• Roll shoulders back; allow limbs to hang from that strong framework.
• Straightening your spine pulls your head up and makes managing arms and legs easier.
• Physiological benefit: Posture actually changes hormones in your body, replacing stress with confidence.

🚶‍♂️ Move deliberately

• Use floor space to emphasize points.
• Example: Discussing change over time? Move from audience's left to right as you discuss each change.
• Avoid moving just to be moving—pacing back and forth on a single line with no reference to content makes you look like a bored donkey.

😊 Keep your face mobile and smile

• A stiff, immobile expression is off-putting—even disturbing—to watch.
• The larger your audience, the more you need to exaggerate expressions.
• An authentic smile is one of your best bodily resources.
• Unless announcing a horrible tragedy, try to look happy (a wry smile works for dry-humor people).

🗣️ Speak up with volume, pace, and clarity

• Your voice is a signature part of self-presentation.
• Get feedback from peers—what you hear inside your head isn't what listeners hear.
• Alternative: Record a video of yourself.
• Keep your voice mobile: vary speed, volume, and intensity to match your message.

🤫 Use silence

The absence of voice also speaks loudly.

Uses for silence:

• Gather attention.
• Emphasize a point.
• Give people time to think about a rhetorical question.
• Don't be afraid of the illustrious pause—silence is powerful.

🙌 Gesture large

• In large spaces, make sure arm motions are above your waist and away from your body.
• Don't flap hands near your body like tiny T-rex arms.
• Use large arm gestures to emphasize trends ("Sales are up") or demonstrate concepts ("We'll spread the task load more evenly").
• Use hands to count out points, demonstrate actions, or raise people for a stretch.

🧘 Drop your tics and find your neutral

• Practice a good neutral stance as default.
• When nervous, people do repetitive, distracting things (clasping hands like a fig leaf, pacing, pulling a ring on and off).
• Safe neutral: hands resting loosely at sides.
• In casual presentations: one hand in pocket is fine.

🔧 Troubleshooting

😴 Recover attention

Why attention wanes: Humans are prone to lose focus and daydream (especially after lunch on a hot day).

Techniques to recover attention:

• Turn on the lights: Even mid-slide presentation, turn on lights and review agenda to get everyone back on track.
• Move quickly to a new spot: People perk up when you abandon your traditional post and speak from the side or back of the room.
• Ask a question: Get people to discuss with neighbors, then report back.
• Call a mid-game stretch: Nuclear option (takes more time than expected), but necessary if people are falling asleep; adjust formality to audience.

💬 Distract the chatters

• When people check out and start their own party, move to stand right beside them.
• If that doesn't work: ask them a direct question or give a meaningful, playful glance.

🛑 Shut down a presentation hijacker

• If someone is too into your presentation and starts taking over, suggest a future time to hear their ideas.
• You may need to interrupt—that's okay.
• If they haven't caught your throat clearing or attempts to cut in, they need less subtle cues.
• Others in the room will thank you—audiences don't like chaos or hijacking.

🤦 Recover after a mistake

• Everyone makes mistakes (wrong report number, calling boss the wrong name).
• If you're impeccably prepared otherwise, audience will sense it's a minor blip.
• Make a quick joke or simply correct the error.
• Show authenticity and confidence by rolling with it.
• If you're uncomfortable, your audience will be too.

❓ Handle tough questions

When encountering hostile audiences or unprepared for a key question:

• Listen carefully.
• Repeat the question to clarify.
• Ask follow-up questions to understand concerns or requirements.
• If you don't know answers, be honest and say so.
• Once you fully understand issues, explain how and when you'll address them.

⏱️ Plan for length changes

• Be ready when you get the "cut it short" sign.
• Have XS, M, XL (extra-short, medium, extra-long) versions planned.
• Most common scenario: you'll need to cut it short, so spend most time planning that version.
• Think of ways to make your main point, then distribute supporting points evenly.
• Golden rule: Always plan to end 5-10% early—your audience will love you.

👥 Presenting in teams

When presenting with a team, rehearsal is even more important:

• Practice introductions and smooth transitions.
• Decide who will handle questions for each topic.
• Coordinate level of dress.
• Show your audience you work well together and can get the job done.

📊 Key statistics

Statistic	Meaning
70%	Percentage of employed Americans who say presentation skills are critical to work success
20%	Percentage who say they would do almost anything to avoid giving a presentation
46%	Percentage of respondents who admit to being distracted during a co-worker's presentation

Tasks employees do instead of listening:

• Send text messages
• Answer email
• Surf the internet
• Check social media
• Fall asleep

🎯 Conclusion

💡 Core principle

Getting humans together in a room is costly in time and money—use each opportunity to make a difference for them and for your career.

🤝 Before and after

• Connect with people before and after your presentation.
• A little self-deprecating humor can play well.
• Then knock their socks off with preparation and competence.
• Be honest, humble, confident, and convincing.
• Be human, but be prepared.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Your personal brand—shaped by everything from your clothing choices to social media posts—should be strategically managed during college to become a career asset rather than a liability.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Brand is unavoidable: Every choice you make (clothing, vocabulary, social media, activities) communicates who you are and what you value—opting out is not possible.
• Five strategic steps: Online presence, strategic work, hiring landscape knowledge, mentors, and networking form the foundation of effective personal branding.
• Digital footprint matters: Hiring managers evaluate your online presence; it must be cleaned, maintained, and actively improved with good content.
• Common confusion: Don't wait until job searching to build your brand—college years are the prime time to establish a positive professional presence.
• Strategic thinking required: Shift from maximizing GPA to gaining practical experience that demonstrates movement toward professional goals.

💻 Online Presence Management

🔍 Google yourself properly

• Searching from your own laptop returns targeted results because the browser knows you.
• Use a private or incognito window to see what employers will actually see.
• Have a friend or mentor review the results to identify what makes a good impression versus red flags.

🧹 Clean up your profiles

• Remove embarrassing tagged photos and scan posts for tone and content.
• No one expects perfection at age 15, but everything contributes to employer impressions.
• According to Jobvite's Social Recruiting Survey, even spelling and grammar mistakes turn off 43% of recruiters.
• Key principle: Privacy is largely an illusion on the internet—assume future employers may see anything you post.
• Avoid references to illegal or socially destructive behavior.

📈 Crowd out bad content with good

• If dodgy content exists, push it down in search results by creating good content over time.
• A single obsession (only posting about sports or anime) leaves a bad impression.
• Round out your online presence by making regular, interesting, useful posts on various subjects.
• Time investment: Think of this effort as a one-credit-hour class and do the work consistently.

🛡️ Maintenance strategies

• Check social media privacy settings and browser filters twice yearly (use daylight savings time as a trigger).
• If you have a common name with embarrassing search results you can't control, distinguish yourself by using a middle initial, name, or title on all professional correspondence and profiles.

🔗 LinkedIn as your internet resume

LinkedIn profile: the functional equivalent of your internet resume and the first stop for hiring managers.

Steps to develop a strong LinkedIn presence:

1. Create an all-star profile
2. Research and reflect the best profiles from your industry
3. Publish regularly on LinkedIn
4. Network actively
5. Make connecting easy (add a LinkedIn badge to your email signature)

🎯 Strategic Work Selection

💼 Choose jobs that build toward your goals

• Late-night work at comfortable jobs may pay tuition, but it's time to select commitments that put you on the ladder toward your dream job.
• Scan job boards (LinkedIn, Indeed, Monster) for entry-level opportunities in your industry.
• Ask successful people how they got their start.
• Create your own contract work, internship, or part-time job.
• Join professional clubs and demonstrate leadership.
• Start a small business or attend industry-related conferences.

Example: A student working at a burger joint might transition to a marketing internship at a local business to gain relevant experience.

📊 Shift priorities strategically

• The main point is to show movement toward professional goals.
• Shift priority from achieving the highest possible GPA to gaining practical experience attractive to future employers.
• After full-time employment, continue thinking strategically about how new positions fit your overall plan.
• Feel free to suggest a hybrid role if an offered position doesn't meet your aims.

⏰ Weekly career development

• Set a goal to work on professional career development each week (10 minutes, 30 minutes, or an hour).
• Research and networking investment now pays off later with big dividends.

🏢 Understanding the Hiring Landscape

🗺️ Know your industry

Understanding the industry outlook and hiring landscape helps you position yourself to take advantage of opportunities and avoid threats (and excel in interviews).

Key questions to answer:

1. What are the largest and fastest-growing companies in this industry?
2. What are the most influential associations and where do they publish? (Trade journals, websites, LinkedIn groups, association newsletters)
3. What challenges are companies currently facing?
4. Is the job market expanding, staying steady, or decreasing?
5. What are common entry-level jobs and average salaries for your target region?

📚 Industry research resources

Resource	What it provides
Occupational Outlook Handbook	Government projections for job growth and salary by industry
Glassdoor.com	Reviews of employers and average salaries (take with a grain of salt)
Vault.com	Career intelligence, rankings, ratings, and reviews
Mergent Online	In-depth information on company management, structure, and outlook
Morningstar.com	Financial analyst reports
IBIS World	Overviews of industry segments, players, and trends

👥 Finding and Working with Mentors

🤝 What mentors offer

Mentor: someone further along professionally who is willing to share information and give practical advice.

• To a mentor, you offer a fresh perspective, new contacts, and honest admiration.
• Your main jobs: take responsibility for communication, follow through to make your mentor look good, and avoid being annoying.
• Advantage of college mentorship: You aren't immediately asking for something that costs social capital (like a high-stakes job recommendation)—you're just asking for advice, which is fun to give.

🎪 Show up at events

• Attend club or industry events, business openings, lectures, and conferences.
• Participate actively and with a smile.
• Think of good questions that show you've been paying attention.
• Ask questions of key people during the event.
• If someone responds warmly, ask to schedule a 20-minute visit (informational interview) in person or on the phone.
• Hand them a well-designed business card (serves as a tangible reminder that you are professional, prepared, and interesting).
• Don't expect them to contact you—that's your job.

❓ Ask questions during informational interviews

• Follow up with industry-specific questions.
• Briefly ask for advice about career strategy.
• Be sensitive to whether your potential mentor is enjoying the conversation and seems willing to help.
• Don't formally ask "Will you be my mentor?"—that can seem pushy; mentor is more of an honorific than a formal title.
• Express gratitude, give sincere and specific compliments, and be sensitive about not asking for too much time or effort.
• Keep your first informational interview short (about 15 minutes unless invited to stay longer).

📬 Follow up consistently

• Keep in touch every few months by sharing quick updates, reposting something your mentor has written, asking a question, or sending congratulations on promotions or awards.
• Connect on LinkedIn.
• Offer to help with a small project if you can—what are you good at that might help them?
• If they introduce you to someone, write an email about the outcome and say thanks.
• Don't take any effort for granted.
• When ready to search for your first professional job, you'll already have someone to help navigate, make introductions, and recommend you.
• Pay it forward: Remember that soon you'll be in a position to be a mentor.

🌐 Networking Skills

🎯 What networking really is

Networking: forming long-lasting relationships of trust and service, not just job searching.

• You already network with friends: helping them out, sharing ideas, making memories.
• Deliberate professional networking pays big dividends.
• The vast majority of jobs are secured through networks.
• Personal networks channel the flow of projects, clients, resources, and contracts worldwide.

🚶 Get off the couch

• Top networkers are out and about talking to people.
• Think of attending class as a networking event; sit next to students who make interesting comments.
• At social events, make a goal of introducing yourself to two new people.
• Join a club.
• Get friends to bring new people when you go out for a meal.

💬 Pay attention and ask questions

• Everyone is an expert at something and has a story.
• Find points of connection (and difference) to keep conversations lively.
• Widen connections by including people from other fields.
• Make quality introductions.

Example: "Mike, I'd like to introduce you to Sarah, who is graduating with a degree in accounting this semester. Sarah and I go way back, and I think she's someone you should get to know."

🔓 Open-ended questions to ask

General conversation starters:

• How did you get involved in...? (or why did you decide to major in...?)
• What do you like to do on the weekend?
• Do you have any travel plans this year?

Power connection questions (before leaving the conversation):

• Who else do you know that I should talk to?
• What other ideas do you have for me?
• What changes are you seeing in this industry?
• What do you love most about what you do?
• How can I help you?

🌱 Cultivate your connections

• When you meet interesting people, offer a handshake and your name.
• Connect soon afterward on LinkedIn.
• Keep notes about where you met, details you learned, and how you might help each other in the future.
• Think of your network as a garden: Keep the soil rich with new ideas and experiences, plant new friendships, discourage aggressive weeds, fertilize regularly by staying in touch, then enjoy the harvest.

📅 Schedule networking time

• Set aside a regular half hour every month to send quick emails or messages to people you've been impressed by.
• Give sincere compliments, ask questions, or find out what they're working on.
• Assistant Power: Seek out influencers—they're not always in the corner office; an executive's assistant may be a more valuable contact than the busy executive.

🎤 Develop your elevator pitch

Elevator pitch: a succinct and persuasive description of yourself you can deliver flawlessly.

Your pitch should:

• Last 30 seconds or less
• Include your name
• Tell what you do well or what differentiates you
• Describe what you'd like to do

Important: Spend time writing down, structuring, and practicing your pitch, but don't memorize it word for word—sounding like a human, not a robot, is essential for success.

🎓 Conclusion

🏆 Prime years for branding

These college years are the optimal time to create a positive professional brand by:

• Paying attention to your online presence
• Looking for fulfilling and strategic work
• Learning about the hiring landscape you'll enter
• Cultivating mentors
• Networking at classes and events

⚠️ Avoid future struggles

By doing these things now, you'll avoid a desperate struggle to re-brand yourself after college when shopping for your first real job—you may even catch the attention of some great new friends.

🧭 Overview

🧠 One-sentence thesis

Successful job hunting requires a multi-pronged approach—networking, tailoring application materials with keywords and quantified accomplishments, thorough interview preparation, and strategic follow-up—to stand out in a competitive market where the average worker holds 12 jobs in a lifetime.

📌 Key points (3–5)

• Four pathways to jobs: campus career services, online job boards, networking (especially "friends of friends"), and proposing your own role to solve organizational pain points.
• Keyword optimization matters: resumes, cover letters, and LinkedIn profiles must incorporate key skill words from job descriptions to pass both human and automated screening.
• PAR stories prove your value: prepare Problem-Action-Result narratives that quantify accomplishments and demonstrate skills relevant to the target job.
• Common confusion: resumes vs. cover letters—resumes are scannable skill inventories judged in ~10 seconds; cover letters are your human voice showing cultural fit and enthusiasm.
• Interview success depends on preparation: research the organization's culture (e.g., via Glassdoor), practice behavioral questions 3+ times, and adapt your approach to different formats (in-person, video, phone).

🔍 Finding job opportunities

🏫 Campus career services

• Start early—well before your last semester.
• Offers planning advice, career counseling, and alumni networks dedicated to helping you succeed.
• Positions you strategically to take advantage of all available resources.

💻 Online job boards

Different boards acquire postings differently, so search multiple platforms:

Platform	Key feature
Indeed	Giant aggregator with advanced search filters
LinkedIn	Professional networking; evaluate company opportunities
Monster	Career resources by industry, salary calculators, resume help
CareerBuilder	Scans your resume and recommends matching jobs
Glassdoor	Real employee reviews of culture, hiring process, salaries
Company websites	Direct postings; check regularly for new positions

Action step: Search at least three job boards with filters, then list key skills valued in your industry and plan how to acquire them.

🤝 Networking for hidden opportunities

Your network is simply everyone you know.

• Many jobs are never posted—they go to people acquainted with current employees.
• Research shows people find jobs through "friends of friends" (distant network contacts who know opportunities your close friends don't).
• Be brief and specific when telling your network what you're looking for.

Example phrasing:

• "I'm graduating in April and looking for a finance job where I can put my risk management skills to work. Know anyone I should connect with?"
• "I'm really interested in your field. I did quite well in my stats major and I'll be looking for an internship soon. Can you recommend someone I should talk to?"

💡 Proposing your own role

• Look for pain points in organizations around you.
• When you see bad customer interactions or hear complaints about constant frustrations, think about how you could improve the situation.
• Sometimes proposing limited contract work to address a problem yields long-term employment offers.
• Get in the door, then prove your worth.

Treat your job search like a part-time job: spend time every week on job-search activities; regular effort yields significant rewards.

📝 Application materials strategy

🔑 Keyword optimization

Humans and computers search for keywords when screening applicants.

How to use keywords:

1. Search the job description for key skill words.
2. Write them down and keep the list by your computer.
3. Mention them honestly in your LinkedIn profile, resume, and cover letter.
4. You prove you're serious and prepared when you reference and demonstrate the skills being sought.

📊 PAR stories: Problem-Action-Result

PAR stands for Problem, Action, Result.

• Interviewers use behavioral questions to figure out how you react to challenges.
• Prepare personal stories using keywords from the job description.
• Stories should be brief, engaging, and job-related.

Structure: Create a table with columns for keywords, problem, action, and result.

Example PAR story:

Keyword	Problem	Action	Result
Leadership	Team had worked for weeks without success; no one took responsibility; due date approaching	Created a schedule ensuring completion by due date; talked to each person to get commitment; put in double shifts to help new member	Team rallied behind schedule; completed project on time; professor was pleased and asked to use project as a model
Analytical	Client delivered 40-page document of required changes; team felt overwhelmed and discouraged	Stayed late and created spreadsheet showing which person could best make changes and how to accomplish them quickly	Boss was surprised and pleased; agreed with all assignment suggestions; put me in charge of team

Ongoing practice: Add to your PAR table throughout your career when you conquer tough challenges; review before each interview; read it after a bad day to feel better.

🌐 LinkedIn profile polish

• Modify your headline and summary to point toward the job you want.
• Make your profile "search optimized" by including key skills and phrases in descriptions of accomplishments.
• Find people who have the job you want and let their profiles inspire your content and formatting.
• If possible, connect with these people and seek their advice.
• Join groups in your industry and engage with members.

Don't confuse: LinkedIn is not just a digital resume—it's a networking and discovery tool where recruiters actively search for candidates.

📄 Resume essentials

⏱️ The 10-second rule

Many resumes are judged in under 10 seconds.

Make yours stand apart in four ways: design, content, structure, and grammar.

🎨 Design principles

• Resume design is important, especially in certain industries (e.g., advertising vs. accounting).
• Every industry values clean, uncluttered resumes.
• Make it easy for the reader to access key information: keywords, job titles, dates.
• Check how your resume looks on handheld devices (recruiters may view it on phones first).
• Keep paragraphs and sections short; use great fonts, clear headings, color, icons, logos.
• Save as PDF so formatting is stable on any platform.

Action step: Search for "[your field] resume [current year]" and notice how formatting, font, color, graphics, and spacing impact readability and credibility.

Design tip: Make your NAME stand out, not your email address—use a large font for your name in the header.

📊 Content that counts

Quantify everything possible

Business loves numbers.

Numbers convey credibility and experience.

Example transformation:

❌ No	✅ Yes
I scooped ice cream	Served 200+ customers daily, suggested method that reduced wait time by 50%
Developed a social media campaign	Increased sales 25% by developing a targeted social media campaign

Focus on results, not responsibilities.

What to include

• If you lack pertinent work experience, highlight your education section:
  • Strong GPA
  • Scholarships
  • Club affiliations
  • Courses completed
  • Projects
• Work experience in reverse chronological order
• Include unpaid work if responsibilities or accomplishments were substantial (organizing large events, donation drives, club leadership)
• Online portfolio if your key skills can be demonstrated (writing samples, projects, code, case studies)
• Quirky accomplishment to make your resume memorable (e.g., "Summit County sheep-shearing champion")

Remember: The substance of your resume will often drive your interview—hiring managers may see it for the first time when they sit down to interview you, so be prepared with extra details about each item.

🗂️ Structure and flow

• Recruiters scan resumes instead of reading them, so logical flow and strong headings are key.
• Your name should be the first and last thing a reader notices.
• After your header, lead with a skills summary section or go straight to education.
• If you're just graduating, your education may be your most impressive asset—list your most valuable and job-pertinent assets first.

Skip the "Objective" statement: your objective is already clear (you want the job you're applying for), and it's YOU-focused rather than AUDIENCE-focused.

✅ Grammar perfection

One careless error gives employers an easy "no."

• A tiny mistake in grammar, spelling, or punctuation could cost you a future job.
• Your resume may quickly be tossed into the recycling bin.
• Run your resume by several skilled editors until you're sure it's error-free.

✉️ Cover letter strategy

🎯 Eight essential tips

1. Consistent branding: Use the same well-designed letterhead as your resume (if printing); in email, use a signature that includes your LinkedIn address.

2. Strong opening: Follow correct letter format or use a strong subject line in email (e.g., "Proven Recruiter for HR Position" instead of simply "Application"); get right to the point—you only have a second to capture attention.

3. Audience focus: This message is not really about you, but about how you can help the company; demonstrate that you know what the employer wants and are ready to provide it.

4. Tailor it: Each cover letter and resume should be tailored to the specific job; drawing attention to personal connections can have a profoundly positive impact.

5. Be real: Don't sound like a robot; have pity on the poor applicant screener; use wit to craft a human-sounding letter with vivid language; be honest and confident (not falsely modest).

6. Show, don't tell: When you make a skill claim, support it briefly with a concrete example (save details for the interview).

7. Impeccable grammar and spelling: Enough said.

8. Be brief: no more than one page if printed, 3–4 paragraphs on email.

Purpose: Your cover letter is your "human voice" approach to the job—it gives you the opportunity to name-drop connections, briefly list your differentiators, and promise more proof in an interview.

🎤 Interview preparation and execution

🔍 Research phase

Cultural fit matters

One of the most intangible, and important, factors to hiring is finding a "cultural fit."

• Managers want employees who are as enthused about their organization as they are, who work similarly, and who share a sense of humor when things get tense.
• Check your target organization's profile on Glassdoor to learn from current and former employees:
  • How the interview process is conducted
  • What's really expected of new hires
  • How much trust they have in management

Research checklist:

• Your industry
• The organization you're interviewing with
• The target position
• The person you're meeting with

🎭 Practice makes perfect

• Grab a smart person and practice at least three times.
• Hand them a copy of your resume and something to eat.
• Get them to ask behavioral questions so you can practice answering smoothly and confidently with PAR stories.
• Ask for candid feedback; be open and appreciative.
• Video record yourself to check mannerisms, posture, and voice.

Why practice matters: Practicing your PAR stories at least three times gives you a level of confidence that sets you apart from your competition.

📹 Interview formats and tips

In-person interviews

• Face-to-face interviews are still the gold standard.
• When offered a seat, take out a pen and paper to make notes (helps you look alert and capable; helps you remember points).
• Be prepared for "Tell me about yourself"—give a brief personal pitch you've practiced many times; connect your background and strengths to your target job.
• Remember to breathe; your interviewer wants you to succeed.

Video call interviews

Setup:

• Become familiar with the technology; try at least two services so you can switch if necessary.
• Compose a clean, simple backdrop.
• Orient light toward your face or to your side (not above or behind); natural light is most flattering.
• Place camera at eye level (stack books under laptop so interviewer isn't looking up your nose).
• Double-check interview time and time zone.

On the day:

• Choose a solid-colored, pressed shirt (wrinkles show up more on camera).
• Maintain fairly constant distance from webcam.
• Don't drum fingers or type notes during call (sensitive microphones magnify every sound).
• Look at the camera, not the screen (especially when emphasizing a point or conveying sincerity).
• Smile! Exude energy, confidence, and optimism.

Phone interviews

Two simple tricks make a big difference:

1. Remain standing and walk around
2. Smile (even if no one's in the room)

You will sound better if you're smiling, moving, and well-dressed than if you're slouched on the couch in pajamas; moving helps you shed stress.

⚠️ Common non-verbal mistakes to avoid

Based on a 2012 survey of 2,000 bosses:

Mistake	Percentage who notice
Bad posture	68%
Fidgeting too much	47%
Having little or no knowledge of the company	38%
Failure to make eye contact	33%
Lack of a smile	33%

Critical stat: 30% of interviewers know whether they will hire the applicant within 90 seconds.

👔 Interview day mindset

• Read through your PAR stories to remind yourself how awesome you are.
• Press your shirt (details make a difference).
• Leave an extra half hour for traffic.
• Having confidence will improve your performance, so do what you can to feel invincible.

🎯 Post-interview and offer stage

📧 Follow-up thank-you note

Shortly after your interview, write a thank-you note (email or handwritten):

• Express appreciation for the meeting.
• Briefly connect your skills to the new understanding of the job you obtained through the interview.
• Reiterate your interest and suitability.
• Show that you've followed up on any suggestions your interviewer made.

Example structure:

Dear [Name],

Thanks for seeing me yesterday. I really enjoyed meeting you and the team.

[Mention specific project/topic discussed and your enthusiasm for it.]

[Reference any article/resource they mentioned and follow-up you did.]

I look forward to hearing from you soon,
[Your name]

💼 Accepting and negotiating offers

• If extended an offer (sometimes with a time limit), take time to think about whether the job and company are a good fit.
• Consult with mentors and significant others.
• Do your research and negotiate for an offer that reflects both your value and your values.

Don't confuse: Successful negotiations are not all about money—you can negotiate vacation, relocation benefits, working from home, team assignments, etc.

Why it matters: Your subsequent salaries will all rest on the foundation of your first one, so getting your salary and benefits package right makes a lot of sense.

🔄 If you don't receive an offer

• Don't get discouraged—everyone has more interviews than offers.
• Use the experience as an opportunity to learn what you can do to succeed next time.
• Ask what advice your interviewer would give you for future interviews.
• Ask what skills or experiences the successful candidate possessed that you should gain.
• Get to work improving your chances of landing your dream job.